Croesus

Croesus was the last king of Lydia, who ruled from his capital at Sardis for fourteen years in the sixth century BC. He was famous for his wealth, for his conversation with the Athenian Solon about happiness, and for the loss of his empire to Cyrus of Persia after he misread an oracle from Delphi. The fullest ancient account is in Book 1 of Herodotus’ Histories.

King of Lydia

Croesus was the son of Alyattes and became king at thirty-five. Herodotus calls him the first foreigner known to him who subjugated some Greeks and took tribute from them, namely the Ionians, Aeolians and Dorians of Asia, and who won the friendship of others, the Lacedaemonians (Herodotus 1.6.2, 1.26.1). The first Greeks he attacked were the Ephesians (Herodotus 1.26.1). Herodotus also says that the Lydians were the first people known to him to coin and use gold and silver currency (Herodotus 1.94.1); he does not credit Croesus alone with it.

Solon and Croesus

The Athenian Solon, travelling abroad, came to Sardis. Croesus entertained him and had his attendants show him the royal treasures, and then asked who was the happiest man he had ever seen, expecting to be named. Solon named Tellus the Athenian, and then Cleobis and Biton, two brothers from Argos who died peacefully in the temple of Hera after drawing their mother to the festival in an ox cart (Herodotus 1.29–31). Croesus was offended, and Solon told him that no man can be called fortunate until he is dead (Herodotus 1.32). The longer story has its own page, Solon and Croesus.

Atys and Adrastus

After Solon had gone, Herodotus says divine retribution fell on Croesus, perhaps because he thought himself the most blessed of men. In a dream he saw his son Atys, the best of his two sons (the other was mute), killed by an iron spear (Herodotus 1.34). He kept Atys from war and arranged his marriage. Then Adrastus, a Phrygian of the royal house, son of Gordias and grandson of Midas, who had accidentally killed his own brother, came to Sardis to be purified, and Croesus purified him and kept him in his house (Herodotus 1.35).

A huge boar then ravaged the fields of the Mysians on Mount Olympus. When the Mysians asked for help, Atys begged to join the hunt, and Croesus, who had forbidden him to lead any expedition because of the dream (Herodotus 1.38), finally gave way and charged Adrastus with protecting his son (Herodotus 1.41). During the hunt Adrastus threw his spear at the boar, missed it, and hit Atys (Herodotus 1.36–43). Croesus forgave Adrastus, saying he held a god responsible, but after the funeral Adrastus killed himself at the tomb (Herodotus 1.45).

The Oracles and the War with Cyrus

Croesus mourned his son for two years. Then the rise of Cyrus, who had overthrown Astyages the Mede, made him decide to check the growth of Persian power (Herodotus 1.46). He first tested the oracles, telling envoys to inquire on the hundredth day after leaving Sardis what he was doing. Only Delphi guessed: he had cut up a tortoise and a lamb and boiled them together in a bronze cauldron (Herodotus 1.47–48). He then sent huge sacrifices and gifts to Delphi (Herodotus 1.50–52) and asked whether to march against the Persians. Both Delphi and the oracle of Amphiaraus answered that if he sent an army against the Persians he would destroy a great empire (Herodotus 1.53.3). He asked a third time whether his rule would be long, and the Pythia answered that he should flee when a mule became king of the Medes (Herodotus 1.55–56).

Croesus crossed the river Halys into Cappadocia, camped at Pteria and ravaged the land (Herodotus 1.71, 1.76). After an indecisive battle he went back to Sardis, but Cyrus followed him. The Lydians, who fought on horseback and were the most warlike people in Asia, lost the battle in front of the city, and after a siege of fourteen days a Persian soldier scaled the one steep place on the acropolis that had been left unguarded, and Sardis fell (Herodotus 1.80, 1.84). The Persians took Croesus prisoner after he had ruled fourteen years and been besieged fourteen days; as the oracle had said, he had destroyed a great empire, his own (Herodotus 1.86.1). During the capture a Persian was about to kill him, when his mute son suddenly cried out, “Man, do not kill Croesus!” and from then on could speak (Herodotus 1.85).

The Pyre

Cyrus had a pyre built and set Croesus on it in chains, with fourteen Lydian youths beside him. On the pyre Croesus remembered Solon and groaned his name three times. When Cyrus heard through interpreters why, he changed his mind, thinking that he was burning a man as fortunate as himself, and ordered the fire put out, but it was out of control. Croesus called on Apollo, and out of a clear, windless sky clouds gathered and a storm broke, extinguishing the fire (Herodotus 1.86–87).

Adviser to Cyrus

Cyrus made Croesus sit beside him, and Croesus warned him that his soldiers were plundering Sardis, advising him to post guards and take a tithe of the booty (Herodotus 1.88–89). With Cyrus’ leave, Croesus sent his chains to Delphi to ask why the god had deceived him. The Pythia answered that no one, not even a god, can escape his destined lot: Croesus was paying for the crime of his ancestor of the fifth generation, a guard of the Heraclidae who killed his master and took his throne. Apollo had delayed the fall of Sardis by three years and saved Croesus from the fire; the “mule” was Cyrus, born of parents of different peoples (Herodotus 1.90–91). Later Croesus advised Cyrus against crossing the river into the land of the Massagetae, reminding him that human fortunes turn like a wheel (Herodotus 1.207).

Croesus Sources

Herodotus, Histories 1.6, 1.26, 1.29–56, 1.71–91, 1.94, 1.207.

See Also: Solon and Croesus, Cleobis, Adrastus, Apollo, Delphi, Amphiaraus, Midas