Ἀπὸ γὰρ τῶν Αἰθιοπικῶν τερμόνων ῥεῖ ἐπʼ εὐθείας ὁ Νεῖλος πρὸς ἄρκτους ἕως τοῦ καλουμένου χωρίου Δέλτα· εἶτʼ ἐπὶ κορυφὴν σχιζόμενος, ὥς φησιν ὁ Πλάτων, ὡς ἂν τριγώνου κορυφὴν ἀποτελεῖ τὸν τόπον τοῦτον· πλευρὰς δὲ τοῦ τριγώνου τὰ σχιζόμενα ἐφʼ ἑκάτερα ῥεῖθρα καθήκοντα μέχρι τῆς θαλάττης, τὸ μὲν ἐν δεξιᾷ τῆς κατὰ Πηλούσιον, τὸ δʼ ἐν ἀριστερᾷ τῆς κατὰ Κάνωβον καὶ τὸ πλησίον Ἡράκλειον προσαγορευόμενον· βάσιν δὲ τὴν παραλίαν τὴν μεταξὺ τοῦ Πηλουσίου καὶ τοῦ Ἡρακλείου. γέγονε δὴ νῆσος ἔκ τε τῆς θαλάττης καὶ τῶν ῥευμάτων ἀμφοῖν τοῦ ποταμοῦ, καὶ καλεῖται Δέλτα διὰ τὴν ὁμοιότητα τοῦ σχήματος· τὸ δʼ ἐπὶ τῇ κορυφῇ χωρίον ὁμωνύμως κέκληται διὰ τὸ ἀρχὴν εἶναι τοῦ λεχθέντος σχήματος, καὶ ἡ κώμη δὲ ἡ ἐπʼ αὐτῷ καλεῖται Δέλτα. δύο μὲν οὖν ταῦτα τοῦ Νείλου στόματα, ὧν τὸ μὲν Πηλουσιακὸν καλεῖται, τὸ δὲ Κανωβικὸν καὶ Ἡρακλειωτικόν· μεταξὺ δὲ τούτων ἄλλαι πέντε εἰσὶν ἐκβολαὶ αἵ γε ἀξιόλογοι, λεπτότεραι δὲ πλείους· ἀπὸ γὰρ τῶν πρώτων μερῶν ἀπορρῶγες πολλαὶ καθʼ ὅλην μερισθεῖσαι τὴν νῆσον πολλὰ καὶ ῥεῖθρα καὶ νήσους ἐποίησαν, ὥσθʼ ὅλην γενέσθαι πλωτὴν διωρύγων ἐπὶ διώρυξι τμηθεισῶν, αἳ κατὰ ῥᾳστώνην πλέονται τοσαύτην ὥστε καὶ ὀστράκινα ἐνίοις εἶναι πορθμεῖα· τὴν μὲν οὖν περίμετρον ὅσον τρισχιλίων σταδίων ἐστὶν ἡ σύμπασα νῆσος· καλοῦσι δʼ αὐτὴν καὶ τὴν κάτω χώραν σὺν ταῖς ἀπαντικρὺ ποταμίαις τοῦ Δέλτα· ἐν δὲ ταῖς ἀναβάσεσι τοῦ Νείλου καλύπτεται πᾶσα καὶ πελαγίζει πλὴν τῶν οἰκήσεων· αὗται δʼ ἐπὶ λόφων αὐτοφυῶν ἢ χωμάτων ἵδρυνται, πόλεις τε ἀξιόλογοι καὶ κῶμαι, νησίζουσαι κατὰ τὴν πόρρωθεν ὄψιν. πλείους δὲ τετταράκοντα ἡμέρας τοῦ θέρους διαμεῖναν τὸ ὕδωρ ἔπειθʼ ὑπόβασιν λαμβάνει κατʼ ὀλίγον, καθάπερ καὶ τὴν αὔξησιν ἔσχεν· ἐν ἑξήκοντα δὲ ἡμέραις τελέως γυμνοῦται καὶ ἀναψύχεται τὸ πεδίον· ὅσῳ δὲ θᾶττον ἡ ἀνάψυξις, τοσῷδε θᾶττον ὁ ἄροτος καὶ ὁ σπόρος· θᾶττον δέ, παρʼ οἷς τὰ μείζω θάλπη. τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον καὶ τὰ ἐπάνω τοῦ Δέλτα ποτίζεται, πλὴν ὅτι ἐπʼ εὐθείας ὅσον τετρακισχιλίοις σταδίοις διʼ ἑνὸς ῥείθρου τοῦ ποταμοῦ φερομένου, πλὴν εἴ πού τις ἐντρέχει νῆσος, ὧν ἀξιολογωτάτη ἡ τὸν Ἡρακλειωτικὸν νομὸν περιέχουσα, ἢ εἴ πού τις ἐκτροπὴ διώρυγι ἐπὶ πλέον εἰς λίμνην μεγάλην καὶ χώραν, ἣν ποτίζειν δύναται, καθάπερ ἐπὶ τῆς τὸν Ἀρσινοΐτην νομὸν ποτιζούσης καὶ τὴν Μοίριδος λίμνην καὶ τῶν εἰς τὴν Μαρεῶτιν ἀναχεομένων. συλλήβδην δʼ εἰπεῖν, ἡ ποταμία μόνον ἐστὶν Αἴγυπτος ἡ ἑκατέρωθεν * ἐσχάτη τοῦ Νείλου, σπάνιον εἴ που τριακοσίων σταδίων ἐπέχουσα συνεχῶς πλάτος τὸ οἰκήσιμον ἀρξαμένη ἀπὸ τῶν ὅρων τῆς Αἰθιοπίας μέχρι τῆς κορυφῆς τοῦ Δέλτα. ἔοικεν οὖν κειρία * ψυχομένη ἐπὶ μῆκος, ὑπεξαιρουμένων τῶν ἐπὶ πλέον ἐκτροπῶν. ποιεῖ δὲ τὸ σχῆμα τοῦτο τῆς ποταμίας ἧς λέγω καὶ τῆς χώρας τὰ ὄρη τὰ ἑκατέρωθεν ἀπὸ τῶν περὶ Συήνην τόπων καταγόμενα μέχρι τοῦ Αἰγυπτίου πελάγους· ἐφʼ ὅσον γὰρ ταῦτα παρατείνει καὶ διέστηκεν ἀπʼ ἀλλήλων, ἐπὶ τοσοῦτον καὶ ὁ ποταμὸς συνάγεταί τε καὶ διαχεῖται καὶ διασχηματίζει τὴν χώραν διαφόρως τὴν οἰκήσιμον· ἡ δὲ ὑπὲρ τῶν ὀρῶν ἐπὶ συχνὸν ἀοίκητός ἐστιν.
The Nile, when it leaves the boundaries of Ethiopia, flows in a straight line towards the north, to the tract called the Delta, then cloven at the head, (according to the expression of Plato,) makes this point the vertex, as it were, of a triangle, the sides of which are formed by the streams, which separate on each side, and extend to the sea, one on the right hand to Pelusium, the other on the left to Canobus and the neighbouring Heracleium, as it is called ; the base is the coast lying between Pelusium and the Heracleium.
An island was therefore formed by the sea and by both streams of the river, which is called Delta from the resemblance of its shape to the letter (δ) of that name. The spot at the vertex of the triangle has the same appellation, because it is the beginning of the above-mentioned triangular figure. The village, also, situated upon it is called Delta.
These then are two mouths of the Nile, one of which is called the Pelusiac, the other the Canobic and Heracleiotic mouth. Between these are five other outlets, some of which are considerable, but the greater part are of inferior importance. For many others branch off from the principal streams, and are distributed over the whole of the island of the Delta, and form many streams and islands; so that the whole Delta is accessible to boats, one canal succeeding another, and navigated with so much ease, that some persons make use of rafts floated on earthen pots, to transport them from place to place.
The whole island is about 3000 stadia in circumference, and is called, as also the lower country, with the land on the opposite sides of the streams, the Delta.
But at the time of the rising of the Nile, the whole country is covered, and resembles a sea, except the inhabited spots, which are situated upon natural hills or mounds ; and considerable cities and villages appear like islands in the distant prospect.
The water, after having continued on the ground more than forty days in summer, then subsides by degrees, in the same manner as it rose. In sixty days the plain is entirely exposed to view, and dries up. The sooner the land is dry, so much the sooner the ploughing and sowing are accomplished, and it dries earlier in those parts where the heat is greater.
The country above the Delta is irrigated in the same manner, except that the river flows in a straight line to the distance of about 4000 stadia in one channel, unless where some island intervenes, the most considerable of which comprises the Heracleiotic Nome; or, where it is diverted by a canal into a large lake, or a tract of country which it is capable of irrigating, as the lake Moeris and the Arsinoïte Nome, or where the canals discharge themselves into the Mareotis.
In short, Egypt, from the mountains of Ethiopia to the vertex of the Delta, is merely a river tract on each side of the Nile, and rarely if anywhere comprehends in one continued line a habitable territory of 300 stadia in breadth. It resembles, except the frequent diversions of its course, a bandage rolled out.
The mountains on each side (of the Nile), which descend from the parts about Syene to the Egyptian Sea, give this shape to the river tract of which I am speaking, and to the country. For in proportion as these mountains extend along that tract, or recede from each other, in the same degree is the river contracted or expanded, and they impart to the habitable country its variety of shape. But the country beyond the mountains is in a great measure uninhabited.
οἱ μὲν οὖν ἀρχαῖοι στοχασμῷ τὸ πλέον, οἱ δʼ ὕστερον αὐτόπται γενηθέντες ᾔσθοντο ὑπὸ ὄμβρων θερινῶν πληρούμενον τὸν Νεῖλον, τῆς Αἰθιοπίας τῆς ἄνω κλυζομένης, καὶ μάλιστα ἐν τοῖς ἐσχάτοις ὄρεσι, παυσαμένων δὲ τῶν ὄμβρων παυομένην κατʼ ὀλίγον τὴν πλημμυρίδα· τοῦτο δʼ ὑπῆρξε μάλιστα δῆλον τοῖς πλέουσι τὸν Ἀράβιον κόλπον μέχρι τῆς κινναμωμοφόρου καὶ τοῖς ἐκπεμπομένοις ἐπὶ τὴν τῶν ἐλεφάντων θήραν, καὶ εἴ τινες ἄλλαι χρεῖαι παρώξυνον ἐκεῖσε ἄνδρας προχειρίζεσθαι τοὺς τῆς Αἰγύπτου βασιλέας τοὺς Πτολεμαϊκούς. οὗτοι γὰρ ἐφρόντισαν τῶν τοιούτων, διαφερόντως δʼ ὁ Φιλάδελφος ἐπικληθείς, φιλιστορῶν καὶ διὰ τὴν ἀσθένειαν τοῦ σώματος διαγωγὰς ἀεί τινας καὶ τέρψεις ζητῶν καινοτέρας. οἱ πάλαι δὲ βασιλεῖς οὐ πάνυ ἐφρόντισαν τῶν τοιούτων· καίπερ οἰκεῖοι σοφίας γεγονότες καὶ αὐτοὶ καὶ οἱ ἱερεῖς, μεθʼ ὧν ἦν αὐτοῖς ὁ πλείων βίος· ὥστε καὶ θαυμάζειν ἄξιον καὶ διὰ τοῦτο καὶ διότι Σέσωστρις τὴν Αἰθιοπίαν ἐπῆλθεν ἅπασαν μέχρι τῆς κινναμωμοφόρου, καὶ ὑπομνήματα τῆς στρατείας αὐτοῦ καὶ νῦν ἔτι δείκνυται στῆλαι καὶ ἐπιγραφαί. Καμβύσης τε τὴν Αἴγυπτον κατασχὼν προῆλθε καὶ μέχρι τῆς Μερόης μετὰ τῶν Αἰγυπτίων· καὶ δὴ καὶ τοὔνομα τῇ τε νήσῳ καὶ τῇ πόλει τοῦτο παρʼ ἐκείνου τεθῆναί φασιν, ἐκεῖ τῆς ἀδελφῆς ἀποθανούσης αὐτῷ Μερόης· οἱ δὲ γυναῖκά φασι· τὴν ἐπωνυμίαν οὖν ἐχαρίσατο αὐτῇ τιμῶν τὴν ἄνθρωπον, θαυμαστὸν οὖν πῶς ἐκ τῶν τοιούτων ἀφορμῶν οὐ τελέως ἐναργὴς ἦν ἡ περὶ τῶν ὄμβρων ἱστορία τοῖς τότε, καὶ ταῦτα τῶν ἱερέων φιλοπραγμονέστερον ἀναφερόντων εἰς τὰ ἱερὰ γράμματα καὶ ἀποτιθεμένων, ὅσα μάθησιν περιττὴν ἐπιφαίνει. εἰ γὰρ ἄρα, τοῦτʼ ἐχρῆν ζητεῖν ὅπερ καὶ νῦν ἔτι ζητεῖται, τί δή ποτε θέρους, χειμῶνος δὲ οὔ, καὶ ἐν τοῖς νοτιωτάτοις, ἐν δὲ τῇ Θηβαΐδι καὶ τῇ περὶ Συήνην οὐ συμπίπτουσιν ὄμβροι· τὸ δʼ ὅτι ἐξ ὄμβρων αἱ ἀναβάσεις μὴ ζητεῖν, μηδὲ τοιούτων δεῖσθαι μαρτύρων οἵους Ποσειδώνιος εἴρηκε. φησὶ γὰρ Καλλισθένη λέγειν τὴν ἐκ τῶν ὄμβρων αἰτίαν τῶν θερινῶν παρὰ Ἀριστοτέλους λαβόντα, ἐκεῖνον δὲ παρὰ Θρασυάλκου τοῦ Θασίου (τῶν ἀρχαίων δὲ φυσικῶν εἷς οὗτος) ἐκεῖνον δὲ παρʼ ἄλλου, τὸν δὲ παρʼ Ὁμήρου διιπετέα φάσκοντος τὸν Νεῖλον ἂψ δʼ εἰς Αἰγύπτοιο διιπετέος ποταμοῖο. ἀλλʼ ἐῶ ταῦτα πολλῶν εἰρηκότων ὧν ἀρκέσει δύο μηνῦσαι τοὺς ποιήσαντας καθʼ ἡμᾶς τὸ περὶ τοῦ Νείλου βιβλίον, Εὔδωρόν τε καὶ Ἀρίστωνα τὸν ἐκ τῶν περιπάτων· πλὴν γὰρ τῆς τάξεως τά γε ἄλλα καὶ τῇ φράσει καὶ τῇ ἐπιχειρήσει ταὐτά ἐστι κείμενα παρʼ ἀμφοτέροις. ἐγὼ γοῦν ἀπορούμενος ἀντιγράφων εἰς τὴν ἀντιβολὴν ἐκ θατέρου θάτερον ἀντέβαλον· πότερος δʼ ἦν ὁ τἀλλότρια ὑποβαλλόμενος, ἐν Ἄμμωνος εὕροι τις ἄν. Εὔδωρος δʼ ᾐτιᾶτο τὸν Ἀρίστωνα· ἡ μέντοι φράσις Ἀριστώνειος μᾶλλόν ἐστιν. οἱ μὲν οὖν ἀρχαῖοι τὸ οἰκούμενον αὐτὸ καὶ ποτιζόμενον ὑπὸ τοῦ Νείλου μόνον Αἴγυπτον ἐκάλουν ἀπὸ τῶν περὶ Συήνην τόπων ἀρξάμενοι μέχρι τῆς θαλάττης, οἱ δʼ ὕστερον μέχρι νῦν προσέλαβον ἐκ μὲν τῶν πρὸς ἕω μερῶν μεταξὺ τοῦ Ἀραβίου κόλπου καὶ τοῦ Νείλου σχεδόν τι πάντα (οἱ δʼ Αἰθίοπες οὐ πάνυ χρῶνται τῇ Ἐρυθρᾷ θαλάττῃ), ἐκ δὲ τῶν ἑσπερίων τὰ μέχρι τῶν αὐάσεων καὶ ἐν τῇ παραλίᾳ τὰ ἀπὸ τοῦ Κανωβικοῦ στόματος μέχρι Καταβαθμοῦ καὶ τῆς Κυρηναίων ἐπικρατείας. οἵ τε γὰρ ἀπὸ τοῦ Πτολεμαίου βασιλεῖς ἴσχυσαν τοσοῦτον, οἵ γε καὶ τὴν Κυρηναίαν αὐτὴν κατέσχον καὶ διενείμαντο πρὸς τὴν Αἴγυπτον καὶ τὴν Κύπρον, Ῥωμαῖοί τε οἱ διαδεξάμενοι τὴν ἐκείνων ἐπαρχίαν κρίναντες τὴν Αἴγυπτον ἐν τοῖς αὐτοῖς ὅροις διεφύλαξαν. αὐάσεις δʼ οἱ Αἰγύπτιοι καλοῦσι τὰς οἰκουμένας χώρας περιεχομένας κύκλῳ μεγάλαις ἐρημίαις ὡς ἂν νήσους πελαγίας· πολὺ δὲ τοῦτʼ ἔστι κατὰ τὴν Λιβύην, τρεῖς δʼ εἰσὶν αἱ πρόσχωροι τῇ Αἰγύπτῳ καὶ ὑπʼ αὐτῇ τεταγμέναι.
The ancients understood more by conjecture than otherwise, but persons in later times learnt by experience as eyewitnesses, that the Nile owes its rise to summer rains, which fall in great abundance in Upper Ethiopia, particularly in the most distant mountains. On the rains ceasing, the fulness of the river gradually subsides. This was particularly observed by those who navigated the Arabian Gulf on their way to the Cinnamon country, and by those who were sent out to hunt elephants, or for such other purposes as induced the Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, to despatch persons in that direction. These sovereigns had directed their attention to objects of this kind, particularly Ptolemy surnamed Philadelphus, who was a lover of science, and on account of bodily infirmities always in search of some new diversion and amusement. But the ancient kings paid little attention to such inquiries, although both they and the priests, with whom they passed the greater part of their lives, professed to be devoted to the study of philosophy. Their ignorance therefore is more surprising, both on this account and because Sesostris had traversed the whole of Ethiopia as far as the Cinnamon country, of which expedition monuments exist even to the present day, such as pillars and inscriptions. Cambyses also, when he was in possession of Egypt, had advanced with the Egyptians as far even as Meroë; and it is said that he gave this name both to the island and to the city, because his sister, or according to some writers his wife, Meroë died there. For this reason therefore he conferred the appellation on the island, and in honour of a woman. It is surprising how, with such opportunities of obtaining information, the history of these rains should not have been clearly known to persons living in those times, especially as the priests registered with the greatest diligence in the sacred books all extraordinary facts, and preserved records of everything which seemed to contribute to an increase of knowledge. And, if this had been the case, would it be necessary to inquire what is even still a question, what can possibly be the reason why rain falls in summer, and not in winter, in the most southerly parts of the country, but not in the Thebaïs, nor in the country about Syene ? nor should we have to examine whether the rise of the water of the Nile is occasioned by rains, nor require such evidence for these facts as Poseidonius adduces. For he says, that Callisthenes asserts that the cause of the rise of the river is the rain of summer. This he borrows from Aristotle, who borrowed it from Thrasyalces the Thasian (one of the ancient writers on physics), Thrasyalces from some other person, and he from Homer, who calls the Nile heaven-descended: back to Egypt’s heaven-descended stream. But I quit this subject, since it has been discussed by many writers, among whom it will be sufficient to specify two, who have (each) composed in our times a treatise on the Nile, Eudorus and Aristo the Peripatetic philosopher. [They differ little from each other] except in the order and disposition of the works, for the phraseology and execution is the same in both writers. (I can speak with some confidence in this matter), for when at a loss (for manuscripts) for the purpose of comparison and copy, I collated both authors. But which of them surreptitiously substituted the other’s account as his own, we may go to the temple of Ammon to be informed. Eudorus accused Aristo, but the style is more like that of Aristo.
The ancients gave the name of Egypt to that country only which was inhabited and watered by the Nile, and the extent they assigned to it was from the neighbourhood of Syene to the sea. But later writers, to the present time, have included on the eastern side almost all the tract between the Arabian Gulf and the Nile (the Aethiopians however do not make much use of the Red Sea); on the western side, the tract extending to the Auases and the parts of the sea-coast from the Canobic mouth of the Nile to Catabathmus, and the kingdom of Cyrenaea. For the kings who succeeded the race of the Ptolemies had acquired so much power, that they became masters of Cyrenaea, and even joined Cyprus to Egypt. The Romans, who succeeded to their dominions, separated Egypt, and confined it within the old limits.
The Egyptians give the name of Auases (Oases) to certain inhabited tracts, which are surrounded by extensive deserts, and appear like islands in the sea. They are frequently met with in Libya, and there are three contiguous to Egypt, and dependent upon it.
This is the account which we have to give of Egypt in general and summarily. I shall now describe the separate parts of the country and their advantages.
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