πρῶτοι δʼ ὑπὲρ τῆς Συρίας Ναβαταῖοι καὶ Σαβαῖοι τὴν εὐδαίμονα Ἀραβίαν νέμονται, καὶ πολλάκις κατέτρεχον αὐτῆς πρὶν ἢ Ῥωμαίων γενέσθαι· νῦν δὲ κἀκεῖνοι Ῥωμαίοις εἰσὶν ὑπήκοοι καὶ Σύροι. μητρόπολις δὲ τῶν Ναβαταίων ἐστὶν ἡ Πέτρα καλουμένη· κεῖται γὰρ ἐπὶ χωρίου τἆλλα ὁμαλοῦ καὶ ἐπιπέδου, κύκλῳ δὲ πέτρᾳ φρουρουμένου τὰ μὲν ἐκτὸς ἀποκρήμνου καὶ ἀποτόμου τὰ δʼ ἐντὸς πηγὰς ἀφθόνους ἔχοντος εἴς τε ὑδρείαν καὶ κηπείαν. ἔξω δὲ τοῦ περιβόλου χώρα ἔρημος ἡ πλείστη καὶ μάλιστα ἡ πρὸς Ἰουδαίᾳ· ταύτῃ δὲ καὶ ἐγγυτάτω ἐστὶ τριῶν ἢ τεττάρων ὁδὸς ἡμερῶν εἰς Ἱερικοῦντα, εἰς δὲ τὸν φοινικῶνα πέντε. βασιλεύεται μὲν οὖν ὑπό τινος ἀεὶ τῶν ἐκ τοῦ βασιλικοῦ γένους, ἔχει δʼ ὁ βασιλεὺς ἐπίτροπον τῶν ἑταίρων τινὰ καλούμενον ἀδελφόν· σφόδρα δʼ εὐνομεῖται· γενόμενος γοῦν παρὰ τοῖς Πετραίοις Ἀθηνόδωρος, ἀνὴρ φιλόσοφος καὶ ἡμῖν ἑταῖρος, διηγεῖτο θαυμάζων· εὑρεῖν γὰρ ἐπιδημοῦντας ἔφη πολλοὺς μὲν Ῥωμαίων πολλοὺς δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ξένων· τοὺς μὲν οὖν ξένους ὁρᾶν κρινομένους πολλάκις καὶ πρὸς ἀλλήλους καὶ πρὸς τοὺς ἐπιχωρίους, τῶν δʼ ἐπιχωρίων οὐδένας ἀλλήλοις ἐγκαλοῦντας, ἀλλὰ τὴν πᾶσαν εἰρήνην ἄγοντας πρὸς ἑαυτούς.
The Nabataeans and Sabaeans, situated above Syria, are the first people who occupy Arabia Felix. They were frequently in the habit of overrunning this country before the Romans became masters of it, but at present both they and the Syrians are subject to the Romans.
The capital of the Nabataeans is called Petra. It is situated on a spot which is surrounded and fortified by a smooth and level rock (petra), which externally is abrupt and precipitous, but within there are abundant springs of water both for domestic purposes and for watering gardens. Beyond the enclosure the country is for the most part a desert, particularly towards Judaea. Through this is the shortest road to Jericho, a journey of three or four days, and five days to the Phoenicon (or palm plantation). It is always governed by a king of the royal race. The king has a minister who is one of the Companions, and is called Brother. It has excellent laws for the administration of public affairs.
Athenodorus, a philosopher, and my friend, who had been at Petra, used to relate with surprise, that he found many Romans and also many other strangers residing there. He observed the strangers frequently engaged in litigation, both with one another and with the natives; but the natives had never any dispute amongst themselves, and lived together in perfect harmony.
πολλὰ δὲ καὶ ἡ τῶν Ῥωμαίων ἐπὶ τοὺς Ἄραβας στρατεία νεωστὶ γενηθεῖσα ἐφʼ ἡμῶν, ὧν ἡγεμὼν ἦν Αἴλιος Γάλλος, διδάσκει τῶν τῆς χώρας ἰδιωμάτων. τοῦτον δʼ ἔπεμψεν ὁ Σεβαστὸς Καῖσαρ διαπειρασόμενον τῶν ἐθνῶν καὶ τῶν τόπων τούτων τε καὶ τῶν Αἰθιοπικῶν, ὁρῶν τήν τε Τρωγλοδυτικὴν τὴν προσεχῆ τῇ Αἰγύπτῳ γειτονεύουσαν τούτοις, καὶ τὸν Ἀράβιον κόλπον στενὸν ὄντα τελέως τὸν διείργοντα ἀπὸ τῶν Τρωγλοδυτῶν τοὺς Ἄραβας· προσοικειοῦσθαι δὴ διενοήθη τούτους ἢ καταστρέφεσθαι· ἦν δέ τι καὶ τὸ πολυχρημάτους ἀκούειν ἐκ παντὸς χρόνου, πρὸς ἄργυρον καὶ χρυσὸν τὰ ἀρώματα διατιθεμένους καὶ τὴν πολυτελεστάτην λιθείαν, ἀναλίσκοντας τῶν λαμβανομένων τοῖς ἔξω μηδέν· ἢ γὰρ φίλοις ἤλπιζε πλουσίοις χρήσεσθαι ἢ ἐχθρῶν κρατήσειν πλουσίων· ἐπῇρε δʼ αὐτὸν καὶ ἡ παρὰ τῶν Ναβαταίων ἐλπὶς φίλων ὄντων καὶ συμπράξειν ἅπανθʼ ὑπισχνουμένων.
The late expedition of the Romans against the Arabians, under the command of Aelius Gallus, has made us acquainted with many peculiarities of the country. Augustus Caesar despatched this general to explore the nature of these places and their inhabitants, as well as those of Ethiopia; for he observed that Troglodytica, which is contiguous to Egypt, bordered upon Ethiopia; and that the Arabian Gulf was extremely narrow, where it separates the Arabians from the Troglodytae. It was his intention either to conciliate or subdue the Arabians. He was also influenced by the report, which had prevailed from all time, that this people were very wealthy, and exchanged their aromatics and precious stones for silver and gold, but never expended with foreigners any part of what they received in exchange. He hoped to acquire either opulent friends, or to overcome opulent enemies. He was moreover encouraged to undertake this enterprise by the expectation of assistance from the Nabataeans, who promised to co-operate with him in everything.
ἐπὶ τούτοις μὲν οὖν ἔστειλε τὴν στρατείαν ὁ Γάλλος. ἐξηπάτησε δʼ αὐτὸν ὁ τῶν Ναβαταίων ἐπίτροπος Συλλαῖος, ὑποσχόμενος μὲν ἡγήσεσθαι τὴν ὁδὸν καὶ χορηγήσειν ἅπαντα καὶ συμπράξειν, ἅπαντα δʼ ἐξ ἐπιβουλῆς πράξας, καὶ οὔτε παράπλουν ἀσφαλῆ μηνύων οὔθʼ ὁδόν, ἀλλὰ ἀνοδίαις καὶ κυκλοπορίαις καὶ πάντων ἀπόροις χωρίοις ἢ ῥαχίαις ἀλιμένοις παραβάλλων ἢ χοιράδων ὑφάλων μεσταῖς ἢ τεναγώδεσι· πλεῖστον δὲ αἱ πλημμυρίδες ἐλύπουν ἐν τοιούτοις καὶ ταῦτα χωρίοις καὶ αἱ ἀμπώτεις. πρῶτον μὲν δὴ τοῦθʼ ἁμάρτημα συνέβη τὸ μακρὰ κατασκευάσασθαι πλοῖα, μηδενὸς ὄντος μηδʼ ἐσομένου κατὰ θάλατταν πολέμου. οὐδὲ γὰρ κατὰ γῆν σφόδρα πολεμισταί εἰσιν ἀλλὰ κάπηλοι μᾶλλον οἱ Ἄραβες καὶ ἐμπορικοί, μήτι γε κατὰ θάλατταν· ὁ δʼ οὐκ ἔλαττον ὀγδοήκοντα ἐναυπηγήσατο δίκροτα καὶ τριήρεις καὶ φασήλους κατὰ Κλεοπατρίδα τὴν πρὸς τῇ παλαιᾷ διώρυγι τῇ ἀπὸ τοῦ Νείλου. γνοὺς δὲ διεψευσμένος ἐναυπηγήσατο σκευαγωγὰ ἑκατὸν καὶ τριάκοντα, οἷς ἔπλευσεν ἔχων περὶ μυρίους πεζοὺς τῶν ἐκ τῆς Αἰγύπτου Ῥωμαίων καὶ τῶν συμμάχων, ὧν ἦσαν Ἰουδαῖοι μὲν πεντακόσιοι Ναβαταῖοι δὲ χίλιοι μετὰ τοῦ Συλλαίου. πολλὰ δὲ παθὼν καὶ ταλαιπωρηθεὶς πεντεκαιδεκαταῖος ἧκεν εἰς Λευκὴν κώμην τῆς Ναβαταίων γῆς, ἐμπόριον μέγα, πολλὰ τῶν πλοίων ἀποβαλὼν (ὧν ἔνια καὶ αὔτανδρα) ὑπὸ δυσπλοίας, πολεμίου δʼ οὐδενός· τοῦτο δʼ ἀπειργάσατο ἡ τοῦ Συλλαίου κακία τοῦ πεζῇ φήσαντος ἀνόδευτα εἶναι στρατοπέδοις εἰς τὴν Λευκὴν κώμην, εἰς ἣν καὶ ἐξ ἧς οἱ καμηλέμποροι τοσούτῳ πλήθει ἀνδρῶν καὶ καμήλων ὁδεύουσιν ἀσφαλῶς καὶ εὐπόρως εἰς Πέτραν ἐκ Πέτρας, ὥστε μὴ διαφέρειν μηδὲν στρατοπέδου.
Upon these inducements Gallus set out on the expedition. But he was deceived by Syllaeus, the [king’s] minister of the Nabataeans, who had promised to be his guide on the march, and to assist him in the execution of his design. Syllaeus was however treacherous throughout; for he neither guided them by a safe course by sea along the coast, nor by a safe road for the army, as he promised, but exposed both the fleet and the army to danger, by directing them where there was no road, or the road was impracticable, where they were obliged to make long circuits, or to pass through tracts of country destitute of everything ; he led the fleet along a rocky coast without harbours, or to places abounding with rocks concealed under water, or with shallows. In places of this description particularly, the flowing and ebbing of the tide did them the most harm.
The first mistake consisted in building long vessels [of war] at a time when there was no war, nor any likely to occur by sea. For the Arabians, being mostly engaged in traffic and commerce, are not a very warlike people even on land, much less so at sea. Gallus, notwithstanding, built not less than eighty biremes and triremes and galleys (phaseli) at Cleopatris, near the old canal which leads from the Nile. When he discovered his mistake, he constructed a hundred and thirty vessels of burden, in which he embarked with about ten thousand infantry, collected from Egypt, consisting of Romans and allies, among whom were five hundred Jews and a thousand Nabataeans, under the command of Syllaeus. After enduring great hardships and distress, he arrived on the fifteenth day at Leuce-Come, a large mart in the territory of the Nabataeans, with the loss of many of his vessels, some with all their crews, in consequence of the difficulty of the navigation, but by no opposition from an enemy. These misfortunes were occasioned by the perfidy of Syllaeus, who insisted that there was no road for an army by land to Leuce-Come, to which and from which place the camel-traders travel with ease and in safety from Petra, and back to Petra, with so large a body of men and camels as to differ in no respect from an army.
συνέβαινε δὲ τοῦτο τοῦ μὲν βασιλέως τοῦ Ὀβόδα μὴ πολὺ φροντίζοντος τῶν κοινῶν καὶ μάλιστα τῶν κατὰ πόλεμον (κοινὸν δὲ τοῦτο πᾶσι τοῖς Ἀράβων βασιλεῦσιν), ἅπαντα δὲ ἐπὶ τῇ τοῦ ἐπιτρόπου ποιουμένου τοῦ Συλλαίου· τούτου δʼ ἅπαντα δόλῳ στρατηγοῦντος καὶ ζητοῦντος, ὡς οἶμαι, κατοπτεῦσαι μὲν τὴν χώραν καὶ συνεξελεῖν τινας αὐτῶν πόλεις καὶ ἔθνη μετὰ τῶν Ῥωμαίων, αὐτὸν δὲ καταστῆναι κύριον ἁπάντων, ἀφανισθέντων ἐκείνων ὑπὸ λιμοῦ καὶ κόπου καὶ νόσων καὶ ἄλλων ὅσων δόλῳ παρεσκεύασεν ἐκεῖνος· εἰς γοῦν τὴν Λευκὴν κώμην κατῆρεν, ἤδη στομακάκκῃ τε καὶ σκελοτύρβῃ πειραζομένης τῆς στρατιᾶς, ἐπιχωρίοις πάθεσι, τῶν μὲν περὶ τὸ στόμα τῶν δὲ περὶ τὰ σκέλη παράλυσίν τινα δηλούντων ἔκ τε τῶν ὑδρείων καὶ βοτανῶν. ἠναγκάσθη γοῦν τό τε θέρος καὶ τὸν χειμῶνα διατελέσαι αὐτόθι τοὺς ἀσθενοῦντας ἀνακτώμενος. ἐκ μὲν οὖν τῆς Λευκῆς κώμης εἰς Πέτραν, ἐντεῦθεν δʼ εἰς Ῥινοκόλουρα τῆς πρὸς Αἰγύπτῳ Φοινίκης τὰ φορτία κομίζεται κἀντεῦθεν εἰς τοὺς ἄλλους, νυνὶ δὲ τὸ πλέον εἰς τὴν Ἀλεξάνδρειαν τῷ Νείλῳ· κατάγεται δʼ ἐκ τῆς Ἀραβίας καὶ τῆς Ἰνδικῆς εἰς Μυὸς ὅρμον· εἶθʼ ὑπέρθεσις εἰς Κοπτὸν τῆς Θηβαΐδος καμήλοις ἐν διώρυγι τοῦ Νείλου κειμένην· εἰς Ἀλεξάνδρειαν. πάλιν ἐκ τῆς Λευκῆς κώμης ὁ Γάλλος ἀναζεύξας τὴν στρατιὰν διὰ τοιούτων ᾔει χωρίων ὥστε καὶ ὕδωρ καμήλοις κομίζειν μοχθηρίᾳ τῶν ἡγεμόνων τῆς ὁδοῦ· διόπερ πολλαῖς ἡμέραις ἧκεν εἰς τὴν Ἀρέτα γῆν συγγενοῦς τῷ Ὀβόδᾳ· ἐδέξατο μὲν οὖν αὐτὸν Ἀρέτας φιλικῶς καὶ δῶρα προσήνεγκεν, ἡ δὲ τοῦ Συλλαίου προδοσία κἀκείνην ἐποίησε τὴν χώραν δυσπόρευτον· τριάκοντα γοῦν ἡμέραις διῆλθεν αὐτήν, ζειὰς καὶ φοίνικας ὀλίγους παρέχουσαν καὶ βούτυρον ἀντʼ ἐλαίου, διὰ τὰς ἀνοδίας· ἡ δʼ ἑξῆς ἣν ἐπῄει νομάδων ἦν καὶ ἔρημος τὰ πολλὰ ὡς ἀληθῶς, ἐκαλεῖτο δὲ Ἀραρηνή· βασιλεὺς δʼ ἦν Σάβως· καὶ ταύτην ἀνοδίαις διῆλθε κατατρίψας ἡμέρας πεντήκοντα μέχρι πόλεως Νεγράνων καὶ χώρας εἰρηνικῆς τε καὶ ἀγαθῆς· ὁ μὲν οὖν βασιλεὺς ἔφυγεν, ἡ δὲ πόλις ἐξ ἐφόδου κατελήφθη· ἐκεῖθεν ἡμέραις ἓξ ἧκεν ἐπὶ τὸν ποταμόν […] συναψάντων δʼ αὐτόθι τῶν βαρβάρων εἰς μάχην, περὶ μυρίους αὐτῶν ἔπεσον τῶν δὲ Ῥωμαίων δύο· ἐχρῶντο γὰρ ἀπείρως τοῖς ὅπλοις ἀπόλεμοι τελέως ὄντες, τόξοις τε καὶ λόγχαις ξίφεσι καὶ σφενδόναις, οἱ πλεῖστοι δʼ αὐτῶν ἀμφιστόμοις πελέκεσιν· εὐθὺς δὲ καὶ τὴν πόλιν εἷλε καλουμένην Ἀσκᾶ * συλληφθεῖσαν ὑπὸ τοῦ βασιλέως. ἐντεῦθεν εἰς Ἄθρουλα πόλιν ἧκε, κρατήσας αὐτῆς ἀκονιτὶ φρουρὰν ἐμβαλὼν καὶ παρασκευάσας […] σίτου καὶ φοινίκων εἰς πόλιν Μαρίαβα προῆλθεν ἔθνους τοῦ Ῥαμμανιτῶν, οἳ ἦσαν ὑπὸ Ἰλασάρῳ. ἓξ μὲν οὖν ἡμέρας προσβαλὼν ἐπολιόρκει, λειψυδρίας δʼ οὔσης ἀπέστη· δύο μὲν οὖν ἡμερῶν ὁδὸν ἀπέσχε τῆς ἀρωματοφόρου, καθάπερ τῶν αἰχμαλώτων ἀκούειν ἦν. ἓξ δὲ μηνῶν χρόνον ἐν ταῖς ὁδοῖς κατέτριψε φαύλως ἀγόμενος· ἔγνω δʼ ἀναστρέφων, ὀψὲ τὴν ἐπιβουλὴν καταμαθὼν καὶ καθʼ ἑτέρας ὁδοὺς ἐπανελθών· ἐναταῖος μὲν γὰρ εἰς Νέγρανα ἧκεν ὅπου ἡ μάχη συμβεβήκει, ἑνδεκαταῖος δʼ ἐκεῖθεν εἰς Ἑπτὰ φρέατα καλούμενα ἀπὸ τοῦ συμβεβηκότος· ἐντεῦθεν ἤδη διʼ εἰρηνικῆς εἰς Χάαλλα κώμην καὶ πάλιν ἄλλην Μαλόθαν πρὸς ποταμῷ κειμένην ἀφικνεῖται· εἶτα διʼ ἐρήμης ὀλίγα ὑδρεῖα ἐχούσης ὁδὸς μέχρι Ἐγρᾶς κώμης· ἔστι δὲ τῆς Ὀβόδα· κεῖται δʼ ἐπὶ θαλάττης· τὴν δὲ πᾶσαν ὁδὸν ἑξηκοσταῖος ἐξήνυσε κατὰ τὴν ἐπάνοδον, ἀναλώσας ἓξ μῆνας ἐν τῇ ἐξ ἀρχῆς ὁδῷ· ἐντεῦθεν δʼ ἐπεραίωσε τὴν στρατιὰν ἑνδεκαταῖος εἰς Μυὸς ὅρμον, εἶθʼ ὑπερθεὶς εἰς Κοπτὸν μετὰ τῶν σωθῆναι δυναμένων κατῆρεν εἰς Ἀλεξάνδρειαν· τοὺς δʼ ἄλλους ἀπέβαλεν, οὐχ ὑπὸ πολεμίων ἀλλὰ νόσων καὶ κόπων καὶ λιμοῦ καὶ μοχθηρίας τῶν ὁδῶν· ἐπεὶ κατὰ πόλεμον ἑπτά γε μόνους διαφθαρῆναι συνέβη, διʼ ἃς αἰτίας οὐδʼ ἐπὶ πολὺ πρὸς τὴν γνῶσιν τῶν τόπων ὤνησεν ἡ στρατεία αὕτη· μικρὰ δʼ ὅμως συνήργησεν. ὁ δʼ αἴτιος τούτων ὁ Συλλαῖος ἔτισε δίκας ἐν Ῥώμῃ, προσποιούμενος μὲν φιλίαν ἐλεγχθεὶς δὲ πρὸς ταύτῃ τῇ πονηρίᾳ καὶ ἄλλα κακουργῶν καὶ ἀποτμηθεὶς τὴν κεφαλήν.
Another cause of the failure of the expedition was the fact of king Obodas not paying much attention to public affairs, and especially to those relative to war (as is the custom with all Arabian kings), but placed everything in the power of Syllaeus the minister. His whole conduct in command of the army was perfidious, and his object was, as I suppose, to examine as a spy the state of the country, and to destroy, in concert with the Romans, certain cities and tribes; and when the Romans should be consumed by famine, fatigue, and disease, and by all the evils which he had treacherously contrived, to declare himself master of the whole country.
Gallus however arrived at Leuce-Come, with the army labouring under stomacacce and scelotyrbe, diseases of the country, the former affecting the mouth, the other the legs, with a kind of paralysis, caused by the water and the plants [which the soldiers had used in their food]. He was therefore compelled to pass the summer and the winter there, for the recovery of the sick.
Merchandise is conveyed from Leuce-Come to Petra, thence to Rhinocolura in Phoenicia, near Egypt, and thence to other nations. But at present the greater part is transported by the Nile to Alexandreia. It is brought down from Arabia and India to Myus Hormus, it is then conveyed on camels to Coptus of the Thebais, situated on a canal of the Nile, and to Alexandreia. Gallus, setting out again from Leuce-Come on his return with his army, and through the treachery of his guide, traversed such tracts of country, that the army was obliged to carry water with them upon camels. After a march of many days, therefore, he came to the territory of Aretas, who was related to Obodas. Aretas received him in a friendly manner, and offered presents. But by the treachery of Syllaeus, Gallus was conducted by a difficult road through the country ; for he occupied thirty days in passing through it. It afforded barley, a few palm trees, and butter instead of oil.
The next country to which he came belonged to Nomades, and was in great part a complete desert. It was called Ararene. The king of the country was Sabos. Gallus spent fifty days in passing through this territory, for want of roads, and came to a city of the Negrani, and to a fertile country peacefully disposed. The king had fled, and the city was taken at the first onset. After a march of six days from thence, he came to the river. Here the barbarians attacked the Romans, and lost about ten thousand men; the Romans lost only two men. For the barbarians were entirely inexperienced in war, and used their weapons unskilfully, which were bows, spears, swords, and slings; but the greater part of them wielded a double-edged axe. Immediately afterwards he took the city called Asca, which had been abandoned by the king. He thence came to a city Athrula, and took it without resistance; having placed a garrison there, and collected provisions for the march, consisting of corn and dates, he proceeded to a city Marsiaba, belonging to the nation of the Rhammanitae, who were subjects of Ilasarus. He assaulted and besieged it for six days, but raised the siege in consequence of a scarcity of water. He was two days’ march from the aromatic region, as he was informed by his prisoners. He occupied in his marches a period of six months, in consequence of the treachery of his guides. This he discovered when he was returning; and although he was late in discovering the design against him, he had time to take another road back; for he arrived in nine days at Negrana, where the battle was fought, and thence in eleven days he came to the Seven Wells, as the place is called from the fact of their existing there. Thence he marched through a desert country, and came to Chaalla a village, and then to another called Malothas, situated on a river. His road then lay through a desert country, which had only a few watering-places, as far as Egra a village. It belongs to the territory of Obodas, and is situated upon the sea. He accomplished on his return the whole distance in sixty days, in which, on his first journey, he had consumed six months. From Negra he conducted his army in eleven days to Myus Hormus; thence across the country to Coptus, and arrived at Alexandreia with so much of his army as could be saved. The remainder he lost, not by the enemy, but by disease, fatigue, famine, and marches through bad roads ; for seven men only perished in battle. For these reasons this expedition contributed little in extending our knowledge of the country. It was however of some small service.
Syllaeus, the author of these disasters, was punished for his treachery at Rome. He affected friendship, but he was convicted of other offences, besides perfidy in this instance, and was beheaded.
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