ἐπεὶ δὲ τὰ περὶ τῶν Ἰβήρων διήλθομεν, οὐκ ἀνοίκειον εἶναι διαλαμβάνομεν περὶ τῶν ἐν αὐτῇ μετάλλων ἀργυρείων διελθεῖν· αὕτη γὰρ ἡ χώρα σχεδόν τι πλεῖστον καὶ κάλλιστον ἔχει μεταλλευόμενον ἄργυρον καὶ πολλὰς τοῖς ἐργαζομένοις παρέχεται προσόδους.
εἴρηται μὲν οὖν ἡμῖν καὶ ἐν ταῖς πρὸ ταύτης βίβλοις ἐν ταῖς περὶ Ἡρακλέους πράξεσι τὰ κατὰ τὴν Ἰβηρίαν ὄρη τὰ καλούμενα Πυρηναῖα· ταῦτα δὲ καὶ κατὰ τὸ ὕψος καὶ κατὰ τὸ μέγεθος ὑπάρχει διάφορα τῶν ἄλλων· παρήκει γὰρ ἀπὸ τῆς κατὰ τὴν μεσημβρίαν θαλάττης σχεδὸν ἄχρι πρὸς τὸν ὑπὸ τὰς ἄρκτους ὠκεανόν, διείργοντα δὲ τὴν Γαλατίαν καὶ τὴν Ἰβηρίαν, ἔτι δὲ τὴν Κελτιβηρίαν, παρεκτείνει σταδίους ὡς τρισχιλίους.
πολλῶν δʼ ὄντων ἐν αὐτοῖς δρυμῶν καὶ πυκνῶν τοῖς δένδρεσι, φασὶν ἐν τοῖς παλαιοῖς χρόνοις ὑπό τινων νομέων ἀφέντων πῦρ κατακαῆναι παντελῶς ἅπασαν τὴν ὀρεινὴν χώραν· διὸ καὶ συχνὰς ἡμέρας συνεχῶς πυρὸς ἐπιφλέγοντος καῆναι τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν τῆς γῆς, καὶ τὰ μὲν ὄρη διὰ τὸ συμβεβηκὸς κληθῆναι Πυρηναῖα, τὴν δʼ ἐπιφάνειαν τῆς κατακεκαυμένης χώρας ἀργύρῳ ῥυῆναι πολλῷ, καὶ χωνευθείσης τῆς φύσεως, ἐξ ἧς ὁ ἄργυρος κατασκευάζεται, ῥύακας γενέσθαι πολλοὺς ἀργύρου καθαροῦ.
τῆς δὲ τούτου χρείας ἀγνοουμένης παρὰ τοῖς ἐγχωρίοις, τοὺς Φοίνικας ἐμπορίαις χρωμένους καὶ τὸ γεγονὸς μαθόντας ἀγοράζειν τὸν ἄργυρον μικρᾶς τινος ἀντιδόσεως ἄλλων φορτίων. διὸ δὴ τοὺς Φοίνικας μετακομίζοντας εἴς τε τὴν Ἑλλάδα καὶ τὴν Ἀσίαν καὶ τἄλλα πάντα ἔθνη μεγάλους περιποιήσασθαι πλούτους. ἐπὶ τοσοῦτο δὲ τοὺς ἐμπόρους διατεῖναι τῆς φιλοκερδίας, ὥστε ἐπειδὰν καταγόμων ὄντων τῶν πλοίων περιττεύῃ πολὺς ἄργυρος, ἐκκόπτειν τὸν ἐν ταῖς ἀγκύραις μόλιβδον, καὶ ἐκ τοῦ ἀργύρου τὴν ἐκ τοῦ μολίβδου χρείαν ἀλλάττεσθαι.
διόπερ ἐπὶ πολλοὺς χρόνους οἱ Φοίνικες διὰ τῆς τοιαύτης ἐμπορίας ἐπὶ πολὺ λαβόντες αὔξησιν ἀποικίας πολλὰς ἀπέστειλαν, τὰς μὲν εἰς Σικελίαν καὶ τὰς σύνεγγυς ταύτης νήσους, τὰς δʼ εἰς τὴν Λιβύην καὶ Σαρδόνα καὶ τὴν Ἰβηρίαν.
Since we have set forth the facts concerning the Iberians, we think that it will not be foreign to our purpose to discuss the silver mines of the land; for this land possesses, we may venture to say, the most abundant and most excellent known sources of silver, and to the workers of this silver it returns great revenues. Now in the preceding Books which told of the achievements of Heracles we have mentioned the mountains in Iberia which are known as the Pyrenees. Both in height and in size these mountains are found to excel all others; for they stretch from the southern sea practically as far as the northern ocean and extend for some three thousand stades, dividing Gaul from Iberia and Celtiberia. And since they contain many thick and deep forests, in ancient times, we are told, certain herdsmen left a fire and the whole area of the mountains was entirely consumed; and due to this fire, since it raged continuously day after day, the surface of the earth was also burned and the mountains, because of what had taken place, were called the Pyrenees; furthermore, the surface of the burned land ran with much silver and, since the elementary substance out of which the silver is worked was melted down, there were formed many streams of pure silver. Now the natives were ignorant of the use of the silver, and the Phoenicians, as they pursued their commercial enterprises and learned of what had taken place, purchased the silver in exchange for other wares of little if any worth. And this was the reason why the Phoenicians, as they transported this silver to Greece and Asia and to all other peoples, acquired great wealth. So far indeed did the merchants go in their greed that, in case their boats were fully laden and there still remained a great amount of silver, they would hammer the lead off the anchors and have the silver perform the service of the lead. And the result was that the Phoenicians, as in the course of many years they prospered greatly, thanks to commerce of this kind, sent forth many colonies, some to Sicily and its neighbouring islands, and others to Libya, Sardinia, and Iberia.
ὕστερον δὲ πολλοῖς χρόνοις οἱ μὲν Ἴβηρες μαθόντες τὰ περὶ τὸν ἄργυρον ἰδιώματα κατεσκεύασαν ἀξιόλογα μέταλλα· διόπερ ἄργυρον κάλλιστον καὶ σχεδόν τι πλεῖστον κατασκευάζοντες μεγάλας ἐλάμβανον προσόδους. ὁ δὲ τρόπος τῆς μεταλλείας καὶ τῶν ἔργων τοιοῦτός τίς ἐστι παρὰ τοῖς Ἴβηρσιν.
ὄντων χαλκοῦ καὶ χρυσοῦ καὶ ἀργύρου μετάλλων θαυμαστῶν, οἱ μὲν ἐργαζόμενοι τὰ χαλκουργεῖα τὸ τέταρτον μέρος χαλκοῦ καθαροῦ ἐκ τῆς ὀρυττομένης γῆς λαμβάνουσι, τῶν δʼ ἀργυρευόντων τινὲς ἰδιωτῶν ἐν τρισὶν ἡμέραις Εὐβοϊκὸν ἐξαίρουσι τάλαντον· πᾶσα γὰρ ἡ βῶλός ἐστι ψήγματος συμπεπηγότος καὶ ἀπολάμποντος μεστή. διὸ καὶ θαυμάσαι τις ἂν τήν τε τῆς χώρας φύσιν καὶ τὴν φιλοπονίαν τῶν ἐργαζομένων αὐτὴν ἀνθρώπων.
τὸ μὲν οὖν πρῶτον οἱ τυχόντες τῶν ἰδιωτῶν προσεκαρτέρουν τοῖς μετάλλοις, καὶ μεγάλους ἀπεφέροντο πλούτους διὰ τὴν ἑτοιμότητα καὶ δαψίλειαν τῆς ἀργυρίτιδος γῆς· ὕστερον δὲ τῶν Ῥωμαίων κρατησάντων τῆς Ἰβηρίας, πλῆθος Ἰταλῶν ἐπεπόλασε τοῖς μετάλλοις, καὶ μεγάλους ἀπεφέροντο πλούτους διὰ τὴν φιλοκερδίαν.
ὠνούμενοι γὰρ πλῆθος ἀνδραπόδων παραδιδόασι τοῖς ἐφεστηκόσι ταῖς μεταλλικαῖς ἐργασίαις· οὗτοι δὲ κατὰ πλείονας τόπους ἀνοίξαντες στόμια καὶ κατὰ βάθους ὀρύττοντες τὴν γῆν ἐρευνῶσι τὰς πολυαργύρους καὶ πολυχρύσους πλάκας τῆς γῆς· καταβαίνοντές τε οὐ μόνον εἰς μῆκος, ἀλλὰ καὶ εἰς βάθος παρεκτείνοντες ἐπὶ πολλοὺς σταδίους τὰ ὀρύγματα, καὶ πλαγίας καὶ σκολιὰς διαδύσεις ποικίλως μεταλλουργοῦντες, ἀνάγουσιν ἐκ βυθῶν τὴν τὸ κέρδος αὐτοῖς παρεχομένην βῶλον.
But at a much later time the Iberians, having come to know the peculiar qualities possessed by silver, sunk notable mines, and as a consequence, by working the most excellent and, we may say, the most abundant silver to be found, they received great revenues. The manner, then, in which the Iberians mine and work the silver is in part as follows. The mines being marvellous in their deposits of copper and gold and silver, the workers of the copper mines recover from the earth they dig out a fourth part of pure copper, and among the unskilled workers in silver there are some who will take out a Euboic talent in three days; for all the ore is full of solid silver-dust which gleams forth from it. Consequently a man may well be filled with wonder both at the nature of the region and at the diligence displayed by the men who labour there. Now at first unskilled labourers, whoever might come, carried on the working of the mines, and these men took great wealth away with them, since the silver-bearing earth was convenient at hand and abundant; but at a later time, after the Romans had made themselves masters of Iberia, a multitude of Italians have swarmed to the mines and taken great wealth away with them, such was their greed. For they purchase a multitude of slaves whom they turn over to the overseers of the working of the mines; and these men, opening shafts in a number of places and digging deep into the ground, seek out the seams of earth which are rich in silver and gold; and not only do they go into the ground a great distance, but they also push their diggings many stades in depth and run galleries off at every angle, turning this way and that, in this manner bringing up from the depths the ore which gives them the profit they are seeking.
μεγάλην δʼ ἔχει παραλλαγὴν τὰ μέταλλα ταῦτα συγκρινόμενα τοῖς κατὰ τὴν Ἀττικήν. ἐκεῖνα μὲν γὰρ οἱ μεταλλεύοντες καὶ πρὸς ταῖς ἐργασίαις μεγάλας προϊέμενοι δαπάνας ἃ μὲν ἤλπισαν ἐνίοτε λαβεῖν οὐκ ἔλαβον, ἃ δʼ εἶχον ἀπέβαλον, ὥστε δοκεῖν αὐτοὺς ὥσπερ αἰνίγματος τρόπον ἀτυχεῖν·
οἱ δὲ κατὰ τὴν Σπανίαν μεταλλουργοὶ ταῖς ἐλπίσι μεγάλους σωρεύουσι πλούτους ἐκ τούτων τῶν ἐργασιῶν. τῶν γὰρ πρώτων ἔργων ἐπιτυγχανομένων διὰ τὴν τῆς γῆς εἰς τοῦτο τὸ γένος ἀρετὴν ἀεὶ μᾶλλον εὑρίσκουσι λαμπροτέρας φλέβας, γεμούσας ἀργύρου τε καὶ χρυσοῦ· πᾶσα γὰρ ἡ σύνεγγυς γῆ διαπέπλεκται πολυμερῶς τοῖς ἑλιγμοῖς τῶν ῥάβδων.
ἐνίοτε δὲ καὶ κατὰ βάθους ἐμπίπτουσι ποταμοῖς ῥέουσιν ὑπὸ τὴν γῆν, ὧν τῆς βίας περιγίνονται διακόπτοντες τὰς ῥύσεις αὐτῶν τὰς ἐμπιπτούσας τοῖς ὀρύγμασι πλαγίοις. ταῖς γὰρ ἀδιαψεύστοις τοῦ κέρδους προσδοκίαις πιεζόμενοι πρὸς τὸ τέλος ἄγουσι τὰς ἰδίας ἐπιβολάς, καὶ τὸ πάντων παραδοξότατον, ἀπαρύτουσι τὰς ῥύσεις τῶν ὑδάτων τοῖς Αἰγυπτιακοῖς λεγομένοις κοχλίαις, οὓς Ἀρχιμήδης ὁ Συρακόσιος εὗρεν, ὅτε παρέβαλεν εἰς Αἴγυπτον· διὰ δὲ τούτων συνεχῶς ἐκ διαδοχῆς παραδιδόντες μέχρι τοῦ στομίου, τὸν τῶν μετάλλων τόπον ἀναξηραίνουσι καὶ κατασκευάζουσιν εὔθετον πρὸς τὴν τῆς ἐργασίας πραγματείαν.
Great also is the contrast these mines show when they are compared with those of Attica. The men, that is, who work the Attic mines, although they have expended large sums on the undertakings, yet “Now and then, what they hoped to get, they did not get, and what they had, they lost,” so that it would appear that they met with misfortune in a kind of riddle; but the exploiters of the mines of Spain, in their hopes, amass great wealth from their undertakings. For their first labours are remunerative, thanks to the excellent quality of the earth for this sort of thing, and they are ever coming upon more splendid veins, rich in both silver and gold; for all the ground in that region is a tangled network of veins which wind in many ways. And now and then, as they go down deep, they come upon flowing subterranean rivers, but they overcome the might of these rivers by diverting the streams which flow in on them by means of channels leading off at an angle. For being urged on as they are by expectations of gain, which indeed do not deceive them, they push each separate undertaking to its conclusion, and what is the most surprising thing of all, they draw out the waters of the streams they encounter by means of what is called by men the Egyptian screw, which was invented by Archimedes of Syracuse at the time of his visit to Egypt; and by the use of such screws they carry the water in successive lifts as far as the entrance, drying up in this way the spot where they are digging and making it well suited to the furtherance of their operations.
φιλοτέχνου δʼ ὄντος τοῦ ὀργάνου καθʼ ὑπερβολήν, διὰ τῆς τυχούσης ἐργασίας ἄπλατον ὕδωρ ἀναρριπτεῖται παραδόξως, καὶ πᾶν τὸ ποτάμιον ῥεῦμα ῥᾳδίως ἐκ βυθοῦ πρὸς τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν ἐκχεῖται. θαυμάσαι δʼ ἄν τις εἰκότως τοῦ τεχνίτου τὴν ἐπίνοιαν οὐ μόνον ἐν τούτοις, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐν ἄλλοις πολλοῖς καὶ μείζοσι, διαβεβοημένοις κατὰ πᾶσαν τὴν οἰκουμένην, περὶ ὧν τὰ κατὰ μέρος ὅταν ἐπὶ τὴν Ἀρχιμήδους ἡλικίαν ἔλθωμεν ἀκριβῶς διέξιμεν.
Since this machine is an exceptionally ingenious device, an enormous amount of water is thrown out, to one’s astonishment, by means of a trifling amount of labour, and all the water from such rivers is brought up easily from the depths and poured out on the surface. And a man may well marvel at the inventiveness of the craftsman, in connection not only with this invention but with many other greater ones as well, the fame of which has encompassed the entire inhabited world and of which we shall give a detailed and precise account when we come to the period of Archimedes.
οἱ δʼ οὖν ταῖς ἐργασίαις τῶν μετάλλων ἐνδιατρίβοντες τοῖς μὲν κυρίοις ἀπίστους τοῖς πλήθεσι προσόδους περιποιοῦσιν, αὐτοὶ δὲ κατὰ γῆς ἐν τοῖς ὀρύγμασι καὶ καθʼ ἡμέραν καὶ νύκτα καταξαινόμενοι τὰ σώματα, πολλοὶ μὲν ἀποθνήσκουσι διὰ τὴν ὑπερβολὴν τῆς κακοπαθείας· ἄνεσις γὰρ ἢ παῦλα τῶν ἔργων οὐκ ἔστιν αὐτοῖς, ἀλλὰ τῶν ἐπιστατῶν πληγαῖς ἀναγκαζόντων ὑπομένειν τὴν δεινότητα τῶν κακῶν ἀτυχῶς προΐενται τὸ ζῆν, τινὲς δὲ ταῖς δυνάμεσι τῶν σωμάτων καὶ ταῖς τῶν ψυχῶν καρτερίαις ὑπομένοντες πολυχρόνοιον ἔχουσι τὴν ταλαιπωρίαν· αἱρετώτερος γὰρ αὐτοῖς ὁ θάνατός ἐστι τοῦ ζῆν διὰ τὸ μέγεθος τῆς ταλαιπωρίας.
πολλῶν δʼ ὄντων περὶ τὰς προειρημένας μεταλλείας παραδόξων, οὐχ ἥκιστʼ ἄν τις θαυμάσειε διότι τῶν μεταλλουργείων οὐδὲν πρόσφατον ἔχει τὴν ἀρχήν, πάντα δʼ ὑπὸ τῆς Καρχηδονίων φιλαργυρίας ἀνεῴχθη καθʼ ὃν καιρὸν καὶ τῆς Ἰβηρίας ἐπεκράτουν. ἐκ τούτων γὰρ ἔσχον τὴν ἐπὶ πλέον αὔξησιν, μισθούμενοι τοὺς κρατίστους στρατιώτας καὶ διὰ τούτων πολλοὺς καὶ μεγάλους πολέμους διαπολεμήσαντες.
καθόλου γὰρ ἀεὶ Καρχηδόνιοι διεπολέμουν οὔτε πολιτικοῖς στρατιώταις οὔτε τοῖς ἀπὸ τῶν συμμάχων ἀθροιζομένοις πεποιθότες, ἀλλὰ καὶ Ῥωμαίους καὶ Σικελιώτας καὶ τοὺς κατὰ τὴν Λιβύην οἰκοῦντας εἰς μεγίστους ἦγον κινδύνους καταπλουτομαχοῦντες ἅπαντας διὰ τὴν ἐκ τῶν μετάλλων γινομένην εὐπορίαν. δεινοὶ γάρ, ὡς ἔοικεν, ὑπῆρξαν οἱ Φοίνικες ἐκ παλαιῶν χρόνων εἰς τὸ κέρδος εὑρεῖν, οἱ δʼ ἀπὸ τῆς Ἰταλίας εἰς τὸ μηδὲν μηδενὶ τῶν ἄλλων καταλιπεῖν.
But to continue with the mines, the slaves who are engaged in the working of them produce for their masters revenues in sums defying belief, but they themselves wear out their bodies both by day and by night in the diggings under the earth, dying in large numbers because of the exceptional hardships they endure. For no respite or pause is granted them in their labours, but compelled beneath blows of the overseers to endure the severity of their plight, they throw away their lives in this wretched manner, although certain of them who can endure it, by virtue of their bodily strength and their persevering souls, suffer such hardships over a long period; indeed death in their eyes is more to be desired than life, because of the magnitude of the hardships they must bear. And although many are the astounding features connected with the mining just described, a man may wonder not the least at the fact that not one of the mines has a recent beginning, but all of them were opened by the covetousness of the Carthaginians at the time when Iberia was among their possessions. It was from these mines, that is, that they drew their continued growth, hiring the ablest mercenaries to be found and winning with their aid many and great wars. For it is in general true that in their wars the Carthaginians never rested their confidence in soldiers from among their own citizens or gathered from their allies, but that when they subjected the Romans and the Sicilians and the inhabitants of Libya to the greatest perils it was by money, thanks to the abundance of it which they derived from their mines, that they conquered them in every instance. For the Phoenicians, it appears, were from ancient times clever men in making discoveries to their gain, and the Italians are equally clever in leaving no gain to anyone else.
γίνεται δὲ καὶ καττίτερος ἐν πολλοῖς τόποις τῆς Ἰβηρίας, οὐκ ἐξ ἐπιπολῆς εὑρισκόμενος, ὡς ἐν ταῖς ἱστορίαις τινὲς τεθρυλήκασιν, ἀλλʼ ὀρυττόμενος καὶ χωνευόμενος ὁμοίως ἀργύρῳ τε καὶ χρυσῷ. ὑπεράνω γὰρ τῆς τῶν Λυσιτανῶν χώρας ἔστι μέταλλα πολλὰ τοῦ καττιτέρου, κατὰ τὰς προκειμένας τῆς Ἰβηρίας ἐν τῷ ὠκεανῷ νησῖδας τὰς ἀπὸ τοῦ συμβεβηκότος Καττιτερίδας ὠνομασμένας.
πολὺς δὲ καὶ ἐκ τῆς Βρεττανικῆς νήσου διακομίζεται πρὸς τὴν κατʼ ἀντικρὺ κειμένην Γαλατίαν, καὶ διὰ τῆς μεσογείου Κελτικῆς ἐφʼ ἵππων ὑπὸ τῶν ἐμπόρων ἄγεται παρά τε τοὺς Μασσαλιώτας καὶ εἰς τὴν ὀνομαζομένην πόλιν Ναρβῶνα· αὕτη δʼ ἐστὶν ἄποικος μὲν Ῥωμαίων, διὰ δὲ τὴν εὐκαιρίαν μέγιστον ἐμπόριον ἔχουσα τῶν ἐν ἐκείνοις τοῖς τόποις.
Tin also occurs in many regions of Iberia, not found, however, on the surface of the earth, as certain writers continually repeat in their histories, but dug out of the ground and smelted in the same manner as silver and gold. For there are many mines of tin in the country above Lusitania and on the islets which lie off Iberia out in the ocean and are called because of that fact the Cassiterides. And tin is brought in large quantities also from the island of Britain to the opposite Gaul, where it is taken by merchants on horses through the interior of Celtica both to the Massalians and to the city of Narbo, as it is called. This city is a colony of the Romans, and because of its convenient situation it possesses the finest market to be found in those regions.
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