Νέαρχος δὲ περὶ τῆς ἐκ τῶν ποταμῶν ἐπιχοῆς παραδείγματα φέρει τὰ τοιαῦτα, ὅτι καὶ τὸ Ἕρμου καὶ Καΰστρου πεδίον καὶ Μαιάνδρου καὶ Καΐκου παραπλησίως εἴρηται διὰ τὴν ἐπιφορουμένην τοῖς πεδίοις χοῦν αὔξειν αὐτά, μᾶλλον δὲ γεννᾶν, ἐκ τῶν ὀρῶν καταφερομένην, ὅση εὔγεως καὶ μαλακή· καταφέρειν δὲ τοὺς ποταμούς, ὥστε τούτων ὡς ἂν γεννήματα ὑπάρχειν τὰ πεδία· καὶ εὖ λέγεσθαι ὅτι τούτων ἐστι τὰ πεδία. τοῦτο δὲ ταὐτόν ἐστι τῷ ὑπὸ τοῦ Ἡροδότου λεχθέντι ἐπὶ τοῦ Νείλου καὶ τῆς ἐπʼ αὐτῷ γῆς ὅτι ἐκείνου δῶρόν ἐστι· διὰ τοῦτο δʼ ὀρθῶς καὶ ὁμώνυμον τῇ Αἰγύπτῳ φησὶ λεχθῆναι τὸν Νεῖλον ὁ Νέαρχος.
Nearchus, speaking of the accretion of earth formed by the rivers, adduces these instances. The plains of Hermes, Caÿster, Maeander, and Caïcus have these names, because they have been formed by the soil which has been carried over the plains by the rivers; or rather they were produced by the fine and soft soil brought down from the mountains; whence the plains are, as it were, the offspring of the rivers, and it is rightly said, that the plains belong to the rivers. What is said by Herodotus of the Nile, and of the land about it, may be applied to this country, namely, that it is the gift of the Nile. Hence Nearchus thinks that the Nile had properly the synonym of Egypt.
Ἀριστόβουλος δὲ μόνα καὶ ὕεσθαι καὶ νίφεσθαι τὰ ὄρη καὶ τὰς ὑπωρείας φησί, τὰ πεδία δὲ καὶ ὄμβρων ὁμοίως ἀπηλλάχθαι καὶ νιφετῶν, ἐπικλύζεσθαι δὲ μόνον κατὰ τὰς ἀναβάσεις τῶν ποταμῶν· νίφεσθαι μὲν οὖν τὰ ὄρη κατὰ χειμῶνα, τοῦ δὲ ἔαρος ἀρχομένου καὶ τοὺς ὄμβρους ἐνάρχεσθαι καὶ ἀεὶ καὶ μᾶλλον λαμβάνειν ἐπίδοσιν· τοῖς δʼ ἐτησίαις καὶ ἀδιαλείπτως νύκτωρ καὶ μεθʼ ἡμέραν ἐκχεῖσθαι καὶ λάβρους ἕως ἐπιτολῆς ἀρκτούρου· ἔκ τε δὴ τῶν χιόνων καὶ τῶν ὑετῶν πληρουμένους ποτίζειν τὰ πεδία. κατανοηθῆναι δὲ ταῦτα καὶ ὑφʼ ἑαυτοῦ καὶ ὑπὸ τῶν ἄλλων φησίν, ὡρμηκότων μὲν εἰς τὴν Ἰνδικὴν ἀπὸ Παροπαμισαδῶν, μετὰ δὲ δυσμὰς πληιάδων, καὶ διατριψάντων κατὰ τὴν ὀρεινὴν ἔν τε τῇ Ὑπασίων καὶ τῇ Ἀσσακανοῦ γῇ τὸν χειμῶνα, τοῦ δʼ ἔαρος ἀρχομένου καταβεβηκότων εἰς τὰ πεδία καὶ πόλιν Τάξιλα εὐμεγέθη, ἐντεῦθεν δʼ ἐπὶ Ὑδάσπην καὶ τὴν Πώρου χώραν· τοῦ μὲν οὖν χειμῶνος ὕδωρ οὐκ ἰδεῖν ἀλλὰ χιόνας μόνον· ἐν δὲ τοῖς Ταξίλοις πρῶτον ὑσθῆναι, καὶ ἐπειδὴ καταβᾶσιν ἐπὶ τὸν Ὑδάσπην καὶ νικήσασι Πῶρον ὁδὸς ἦν ἐπὶ τὸν Ὕπανιν πρὸς ἕω κἀκεῖθεν ἐπὶ τὸν Ὑδάσπην πάλιν, ὕεσθαι συνεχῶς καὶ μάλιστα τοῖς ἐτησίαις, ἐπιτείλαντος δὲ ἀρκτούρου γενέσθαι παῦλαν· διατρίψαντας δὲ περὶ τὴν ναυπηγίαν ἐπὶ τῷ Ὑδάσπῃ καὶ πλεῖν ἀρξαμένους πρὸ δύσεως πληιάδος οὐ πολλαῖς ἡμέραις, καὶ τὸ φθινόπωρον πᾶν καὶ τὸν χειμῶνα καὶ τὸ ἐπιὸν ἔαρ καὶ θέρος ἐν τῷ κατάπλῳ πραγματευθέντας ἐλθεῖν εἰς τὴν Παταληνὴν περὶ κυνὸς ἐπιτολήν· δέκα μὲν δὴ τοῦ κατάπλου γενέσθαι μῆνας, οὐδαμοῦ δʼ ὑετῶν αἰσθέσθαι οὐδʼ ὅτε ἐπήκμασαν οἱ ἐτησίαι, τῶν δὲ ποταμῶν πληρουμένων τὰ πεδία κλύζεσθαι· τὴν δὲ θάλατταν ἄπλουν εἶναι τῶν ἀνέμων ἀντιπνεόντων, ἀπογαίας δὲ μηδεμιᾶς πνοῆς ἐκδεξαμένης.
Aristobulus, however, says, that rain and snow fall only on the mountains and the country immediately below them, and that the plains experience neither one nor the other, but are overflowed only by the rise of the waters of the rivers; that the mountains are covered with snow in the winter; that the rains set in at the commencement of spring, and continue to increase; that at the time of the blowing of the Etesian winds they pour down impetuously, without intermission, night and day till the rising of Arcturus, and that the rivers, filled by the melting of the snow and by the rains, irrigate the flat grounds.
These things, he says, were observed by himself and by others on their journey into India from the Paropamisadae. This was after the setting of the Pleiades, and during their stay in the mountainous country in the territory of the Hypasii, and in that of Assacanus during the winter. At the beginning of spring they descended into the plains to a large city called Taxila, thence they proceeded to the Hydaspes and the country of Porus. During the winter they saw no rain, but only snow. The first rain which fell was at Taxila. After their descent to the Hydaspes and the conquest of Porus, their progress was eastwards to the Hypanis, and thence again to the Hydaspes. At this time it rained continually, and particularly during the blowing of the Etesian winds, but at the rising of Arcturus the rains ceased. They remained at the Hydaspes while the ships were constructing, and began their voyage not many days before the setting of the Pleiades, and were occupied during the whole autumn, winter, and the ensuing spring and summer, in sailing down the river, and arrived at Patalene about the rising of the Dog-Star; during the passage down the river, which lasted ten months, they did not experience rain at any place, not even when the Etesian winds were at their height, when the rivers were full and the plains overflowed; the sea could not be navigated on account of the blowing of contrary winds, but no land breezes succeeded.
τοῦτο μὲν οὖν αὐτὸ καὶ ὁ Νέαρχος λέγει, περὶ δὲ τῶν θερινῶν ὄμβρων οὐχ ὁμολογεῖ, ἀλλά φησιν ὕεσθαι τὰ πεδία θέρους, χειμῶνος δʼ ἄνομβρα εἶναι. λέγουσι δʼ ἀμφότεροι καὶ τὰς ἀναβάσεις τῶν ποταμῶν. ὁ μέν γε Νέαρχος τοῦ Ἀκεσίνου πλησίον στρατοπεδεύοντάς φησιν ἀναγκασθῆναι μεταλαβεῖν τόπον ἄλλον ὑπερδέξιον κατὰ τὴν ἀνάβασιν, γενέσθαι δὲ τοῦτο κατὰ θερινὰς τροπάς. ὁ δʼ Ἀριστόβουλος καὶ μέτρα τῆς ἀναβάσεως ἐκτίθεται τετταράκοντα πήχεις, ὧν τοὺς μὲν εἴκοσιν ὑπὲρ τὸ προϋπάρχον βάθος πληροῦν μέχρι χείλους τὸ ῥεῖθρον, τοῖς δʼ εἴκοσιν ὑπέρχυσιν εἶναι εἰς τὰ πεδία. ὁμολογοῦσι δὲ καὶ διότι συμβαίνει νησίζειν τὰς πόλεις ἐπάνω χωμάτων ἱδρυμένας, καθάπερ καὶ ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ καὶ Αἰθιοπίᾳ· μετὰ δὲ ἀρκτοῦρον παύεσθαι τὴν πλήμμυραν ἀποβαίνοντος τοῦ ὕδατος· ἔτι δʼ ἡμίψυκτον σπείρεσθαι τὴν γῆν ὑπὸ τοῦ τυχόντος ὀρύκτου χαραχθεῖσαν, καὶ ὅμως φύεσθαι τὸν καρπὸν τέλειον καὶ καλόν. τὴν δʼ ὄρυζάν φησιν ὁ Ἀριστόβουλος ἑστάναι ἐν ὕδατι κλειστῷ, πρασιὰς δʼ εἶναι τὰς ἐχούσας αὐτήν· ὕψος δὲ τοῦ φυτοῦ τετράπηχυ πολύσταχύ τε καὶ πολύκαρπον· θερίζεσθαι δὲ περὶ δύσιν πληιάδος καὶ πτίσσεσθαι ὡς τὰς ζειάς· φύεσθαι δὲ καὶ ἐν τῇ Βακτριανῇ καὶ Βαβυλωνίᾳ καὶ Σουσίδι· καὶ ἡ κάτω δὲ Συρία φύει. Μέγιλλος δὲ τὴν ὄρυζαν σπείρεσθαι μὲν πρὸ τῶν ὄμβρων φησίν, ἀρδείας δὲ καὶ φυτείας δεῖσθαι ἀπὸ τῶν κλειστῶν ποτιζομένην ὑδάτων. περὶ δὲ τοῦ βοσμόρου φησὶν Ὀνησίκριτος διότι σῖτός ἐστι μικρότερος τοῦ πυροῦ, γεννᾶται δʼ ἐν ταῖς μεσοποταμίαις, φρύγεται δʼ ἐπὰν ἀλοηθῇ, προομνύντων μὴ ἀποίσειν ἄπυρον ἐκ τῆς ἅλω τοῦ μὴ ἐξάγεσθαι σπέρμα.
Nearchus gives the same account, but does not agree with Aristobulus respecting the rains in summer, but says that the plains are watered by rain in the summer, and that they are without rain in winter. Both writers, however, speak of the rise of the rivers. Nearchus says, that the men encamped upon the Acesines were obliged to change their situation for another more elevated, and that this was at the time of the rise of the river, and of the summer solstice.
Aristobulus gives even the measure of the height to which the river rises, namely, forty cubits, of which twenty would fill the channel beyond its previous depth up to the margin, and the other twenty are the measure of the water when it overflows the plains.
They agree also in saying that the cities placed upon mounds become islands, as in Egypt and Ethiopia, and that the inundation ceases after the rising of Arcturus, when the waters recede. They add, that the ground when half dried is sowed, after having been prepared by the commonest labourer, yet the plant comes to perfection, and the produce is good. The rice, according to Aristobulus, stands in water in an enclosure. It is sowed in beds. The plant is four cubits in height, with many ears, and yields a large produce. The harvest is about the time of the setting of the Pleiades, and the grain is beaten out like barley. It grows in Bactriana, Babylonia, Susis, and in the Lower Syria. Megillus says that it is sowed before the rains, but does not require irrigation or transplantation, being supplied with water from tanks.
The bosmorum, according to Onesicritus, is a kind of corn smaller than wheat, and grows in places situated between rivers. After it is threshed out, it is roasted; the threshers being previously bound by an oath not to carry it away unroasted from the threshing floor; a precaution to prevent the exportation of the seed.
τὴν δʼ ὁμοιότητα τῆς χώρας ταύτης πρός τε τὴν Αἴγυπτον καὶ τὴν Αἰθιοπίαν καὶ πάλιν τὴν ἐναντιότητα παραθεὶς ὁ Ἀριστόβουλος, διότι τῷ Νείλῳ μὲν ἐκ τῶν νοτίων ὄμβρων ἐστὶν ἡ πλήρωσις τοῖς Ἰνδικοῖς δὲ ποταμοῖς ἀπὸ τῶν ἀρκτικῶν, ζητεῖ πῶς οἱ μεταξὺ τόποι οὐ κατομβροῦνται· οὔτε γὰρ ἡ Θηβαῒς μέχρι Συήνης καὶ τῶν ἐγγὺς Μερόης οὔτε τῆς Ἰνδικῆς τὰ ἀπὸ τῆς Παταληνῆς μέχρι τοῦ Ὑδάσπου· τὴν δʼ ὑπὲρ ταῦτα τὰ μέρη χώραν ἐν ᾗ καὶ ὄμβροι καὶ νιφετοί, παραπλησίως ἔφη γεωργεῖσθαι τῇ ἄλλῃ τῇ ἔξω τῆς Ἰνδικῆς χώρᾳ· ποτίζεσθαι γὰρ ἐκ τῶν ὄμβρων καὶ χιόνων. εἰκὸς δʼ οἷς εἴρηκεν οὗτος καὶ εὔσειστον εἶναι τὴν γῆν, χαυνουμένην ὑπὸ τῆς πολλῆς ὑγρασίας καὶ ἐκρήγματα λαμβάνουσαν ὥστε καὶ ῥεῖθρα ποταμῶν ἀλλάττεσθαι. πεμφθεὶς γοῦν ἐπί τινα χρείαν ἰδεῖν φησιν ἐρημωθεῖσαν χώραν πλειόνων ἢ χιλίων πόλεων σὺν κώμαις, ἐκλιπόντος τοῦ Ἰνδοῦ τὸ οἰκεῖον ῥεῖθρον ἐκτραπομένου δʼ εἰς τὸ ἕτερον ἐν ἀριστερᾷ κοιλότερον πολύ, καὶ οἷον καταρράξαντος, ὡς τὴν ἀπολειφθεῖσαν ἐν δεξιᾷ χώραν μηκέτι ποτίζεσθαι ταῖς ὑπερχύσεσι, μετεωροτέραν οὖσαν οὐ τοῦ ῥείθρου τοῦ καινοῦ μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ τῶν ὑπερχύσεων.
Aristobulus, when comparing the circumstances in which this country resembles, and those in which it differs from, Egypt and Ethiopia, and observing that the swelling of the Nile is occasioned by rains in the south, and of the Indian rivers by rains from the north, inquires why the intermediate places have no rain; for it does not rain in the Thebais as far as Syene, nor at the places near Meroe, nor in the parts of India from Patalene to the Hydaspes. But the country situated above these parts, in which both rain and snow occur, is cultivated by the husbandman in the same manner as the country without India; for the rain and the snow supply the ground with moisture.
It is probable from what he relates that the country is subject to shocks of earthquakes, that the ground is loose and hollow by excess of moisture, and easily splits into fissures, whence even the course of rivers is altered.
He says that when he was despatched upon some business into the country, he saw a tract of land deserted, which contained more than a thousand cities with their dependent villages; the Indus, having left its proper channel, was diverted into another, on the left hand, much deeper, and precipitated itself into it like a cataract, so that it no longer watered the country by the (usual) inundation on the right hand, from which it had receded, and this was elevated above the level, not only of the new channel of the river, but above that of the (new) inundation.
ταῖς δὲ τῶν ποταμῶν πληρώσεσι καὶ τῷ τοὺς ἀπογαίους μὴ πνεῖν ὁμολογεῖ καὶ τὸ λεχθὲν ὑπὸ τοῦ Ὀνησικρίτου· τεναγώδη γάρ φησιν εἶναι τὴν παραλίαν καὶ μάλιστα κατὰ τὰ στόματα τῶν ποταμῶν, διά τε τὴν χοῦν καὶ τὰς πλημμυρίδας καὶ τὴν τῶν πελαγίων ἀνέμων ἐπικράτειαν. Μεγασθένης δὲ τὴν εὐδαιμονίαν τῆς Ἰνδικῆς ἐπισημαίνεται τῷ δίκαρπον εἶναι καὶ δίφορον· καθάπερ καὶ Ἐρατοσθένης ἔφη, τὸν μὲν εἰπὼν σπόρον χειμερινὸν τὸν δὲ θερινόν, καὶ ὄμβρον ὁμοίως· οὐδὲν γὰρ ἔτος εὑρίσκεσθαί φησι πρὸς ἀμφοτέρους καιροὺς ἄνομβρον· ὥστʼ εὐετηρίαν ἐκ τούτου συμβαίνειν ἀφόρου μηδέποτε τῆς γῆς οὔσης· τούς τε ξυλίνους καρποὺς γεννᾶσθαι πολλοὺς καὶ τὰς ῥίζας τῶν φυτῶν καὶ μάλιστα τῶν μεγάλων καλάμων, γλυκείας καὶ φύσει καὶ ἑψήσει χλιαινομένου τοῦ ὕδατος τοῖς ἡλίοις τοῦ τʼ ἐκπίπτοντος ἐκ Διὸς καὶ τοῦ ποταμίου. τρόπον δή τινα λέγειν βούλεται διότι ἡ παρὰ τοῖς ἄλλοις λεγομένη πέψις καὶ καρπῶν καὶ χυμῶν παρʼ ἐκείνοις ἕψησίς ἐστι, καὶ κατεργάζεται τοσοῦτον εἰς εὐστομίαν ὅσον καὶ ἡ διὰ πυρός· διὸ καὶ τοὺς κλάδους φησὶν εὐκαμπεῖς εἶναι τῶν δένδρων ἐξ ὧν οἱ τροχοί· ἐκ δὲ τῆς αὐτῆς αἰτίας ἐνίοις καὶ ἐπανθεῖν ἔριον. ἐκ τούτου δὲ Νέαρχός φησι τὰς εὐητρίους ὑφαίνεσθαι σινδόνας, τοὺς δὲ Μακεδόνας ἀντὶ κναφάλλων αὐτοῖς χρῆσθαι καὶ τοῖς σάγμασι σάγης· τοιαῦτα δὲ καὶ τὰ Σηρικὰ ἔκ τινων φλοιῶν ξαινομένης βύσσου. εἴρηκε δὲ καὶ περὶ τῶν καλάμων ὅτι ποιοῦσι μέλι μελισσῶν μὴ οὐσῶν· καὶ γὰρ δένδρον εἶναι καρποφόρον, ἐκ δὲ τοῦ καρποῦ συντίθεσθαι μέλι, τοὺς δὲ φαγόντας ὠμοῦ τοῦ καρποῦ μεθύειν.
The account of Onesicritus confirms the facts of the rising of the rivers and of the absence of land breezes. He says that the sea-shore is swampy, particularly near the mouths of rivers, on account of the mud, tides, and the force of the winds blowing from the sea.
Megasthenes also indicates the fertility of India by the circumstance of the soil producing fruits and grain twice a year. Eratosthenes relates the same facts, for he speaks of a winter and a summer sowing, and of the rain at the same seasons. For there is no year, according to him, which is without rain at both those periods, whence ensues great abundance, the ground never failing to bear crops.
An abundance of fruit is produced by trees; and the roots of plants, particularly of large reeds, possess a sweetness, which they have by nature and by coction; for the water, both from rains and rivers, is warmed by the sun’s rays. The meaning of Eratosthenes seems to be this, that what among other nations is called the ripening of fruits and juices, is called among these coction, and which contributes as much to produce an agreeable flavour as the coction by fire. To this is attributed the flexibility of the branches of trees, from which wheels of carriages are made, and to the same cause is imputed the growth upon some trees of wool. Nearchus says that their fine clothes were made of this wool, and that the Macedonians used it for mattresses and the stuffing of saddles. The Serica also are of a similar kind, and are made of dry byssus, which is obtained from some sort of bark of plants. He says that reeds yield honey, although there are no bees, and that there is a tree from the fruit of which honey is procured, but that the fruit eaten fresh causes intoxication.
Cite This Text