φησὶ δὴ τὸ τῶν Ἰνδῶν πλῆθος εἰς ἑπτὰ μέρη διῃρῆσθαι, καὶ πρώτους μὲν τοὺς φιλοσόφους εἶναι κατὰ τιμήν, ἐλαχίστους δὲ κατʼ ἀριθμόν· χρῆσθαι δʼ αὐτοῖς ἰδίᾳ μὲν ἑκάστῳ τοὺς θύοντας ἢ τοὺς ἐναγίζοντας, κοινῇ δὲ τοὺς βασιλέας κατὰ τὴν μεγάλην λεγομένην σύνοδον, καθʼ ἣν τοῦ νέου ἔτους ἅπαντες οἱ φιλόσοφοι τῷ βασιλεῖ συνελθόντες ἐπὶ θύρας ὅ τι ἂν αὐτῶν ἕκαστος συντάξῃ τῶν χρησίμων ἢ τηρήσῃ πρὸς εὐετηρίαν καρπῶν τε καὶ ζῴων καὶ περὶ πολιτείας, προσφέρει τοῦτʼ εἰς τὸ μέσον· ὃς δʼ ἂν τρὶς ἐψευσμένος ἁλῷ, νόμος ἐστὶ σιγᾶν διὰ βίου· τὸν δὲ κατορθώσαντα ἄφορον καὶ ἀτελῆ κρίνουσι.
It is said that the Indians are divided into seven castes. The first in rank, but the smallest in number, are the philosophers. Persons who intend to offer sacrifice, or to perform any sacred rite, have the services of these persons on their private account; but the kings employ them in a public capacity at the time of the Great Assembly, as it is called, where at the beginning of the new year all the philosophers repair to the king at the gate, and anything useful which they have committed to writing, or observed, tending to improve the productions of the earth or animals, or of advantage to the government of the state, is then publicly declared.
Whoever has been detected in giving false information thrice is enjoined silence by law during the rest of his life; but he who has made correct observations is exempted from all contributions and tribute.
δεύτερον δὲ μέρος εἶναι τὸ τῶν γεωργῶν, οἳ πλεῖστοί τέ εἰσι καὶ ἐπιεικέστατοι ἀστρατείᾳ καὶ ἀδείᾳ τοῦ ἐργάζεσθαι, πόλει μὴ προσιόντες μηδʼ ἄλλῃ χρείᾳ μηδʼ ὀχλήσει κοινῇ· πολλάκις γοῦν ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ χρόνῳ καὶ τόπῳ τοῖς μὲν παρατετάχθαι συμβαίνει καὶ διακινδυνεύειν πρὸς τοὺς πολεμίους, οἱ δʼ ἀροῦσιν ἢ σκάπτουσιν ἀκινδύνως, προμάχους ἔχοντες ἐκείνους. ἔστι δʼ ἡ χώρα βασιλικὴ πᾶσα· μισθοῦ δʼ αὐτὴν ἐπὶ τετάρταις ἐργάζονται τῶν καρπῶν.
The second caste is that of husbandmen, who constitute the majority of natives, and are a most mild and gentle people, as they are exempted from military service, and cultivate their land free from alarm; they do not resort to cities, either to transact private business, or take part in public tumults It therefore frequently happens that at the same time, and in the same part of the country, one body of men are in battle array, and engaged in contests with the enemy, while others are ploughing or digging in security, having these soldiers to protect them. The whole of the territory belongs to the king. They cultivate it on the terms of receiving as wages a fourth part of the produce.
τρίτον τὸ τῶν ποιμένων καὶ θηρευτῶν, οἷς μόνοις ἔξεστι θηρεύειν καὶ θρεμματοτροφεῖν ὤνιά τε παρέχειν καὶ μισθοῦ ζεύγη· ἀντὶ δὲ τοῦ τὴν γῆν ἐλευθεροῦν θηρίων καὶ τῶν σπερμολόγων ὀρνέων μετροῦνται παρὰ τοῦ βασιλέως σῖτον, πλάνητα καὶ σκηνίτην νεμόμενοι βίον. ἵππον δὲ καὶ ἐλέφαντα τρέφειν οὐκ ἔξεστιν ἰδιώτῃ· βασιλικὸν δʼ ἑκάτερον νενόμισται τὸ κτῆμα, καὶ εἰσὶν αὐτῶν ἐπιμεληταί.
The third caste consists of shepherds and hunters, who alone are permitted to hunt, to breed cattle, to sell and to let out for hire beasts of burden. In return for freeing the country from wild beasts and birds, which infest sown fields, they receive an allowance of corn from the king. They lead a wandering life, and dwell in tents. No private person is allowed to keep a horse or an elephant. The possession of either one or the other is a royal privilege, and persons are appointed to take care of them.
θήρα δὲ τῶν θηρίων τούτων τοιάδε. χωρίον ψιλὸν ὅσον τεττάρων ἢ πέντε σταδίων τάφρῳ περιχαράξαντες βαθείᾳ γεφυροῦσι τὴν εἴσοδον στενωτάτῃ γεφύρᾳ· εἶτʼ εἰσαφιᾶσι θηλείας τὰς ἡμερωτάτας τρεῖς ἢ τέτταρας, αὐτοὶ δʼ ἐν καλυβίοις κρυπτοῖς ὑποκάθηνται λοχῶντες· ἡμέρας μὲν οὖν οὐ προσίασιν οἱ ἄγριοι, νύκτωρ δʼ ἐφʼ ἕνα ποιοῦνται τὴν εἴσοδον· εἰσιόντων δὲ κλείουσι τὴν εἴσοδον λάθρᾳ, εἶτα τῶν ἡμέρων ἀθλητῶν τοὺς ἀλκιμωτάτους εἰσάγοντες διαμάχονται πρὸς αὐτούς, ἅμα καὶ λιμῷ καταπονοῦντες· ἤδη δὲ καμνόντων οἱ εὐθαρσέστατοι τῶν ἡνιόχων λάθρᾳ καταβαίνοντες ὑποδύνουσιν ἕκαστος τῇ γαστρὶ τοῦ οἰκείου ὀχήματος· ὁρμώμενος δʼ ἐνθένδε ὑποδύνει τῷ ἀγρίῳ καὶ σύμποδα δεσμεῖ· γενομένου δὲ τούτου κελεύουσι τοῖς τιθασοῖς τύπτειν τοὺς συμποδισθέντας ἕως ἂν πέσωσιν εἰς τὴν γῆν, πεσόντων δʼ ὠμοβοΐνοις ἱμᾶσι προσλαμβάνονται τοὺς αὐχένας αὐτῶν πρὸς τοὺς τῶν τιθασῶν· ἵνα δὲ μὴ σειόμενοι τοὺς ἀναβαίνειν ἐπʼ αὐτοὺς ἐπιχειροῦντας ἀποσείοιντο, τοῖς τραχήλοις αὐτῶν ἐμβάλλονται κύκλῳ τομὰς καὶ κατʼ αὐτὰς τοὺς ἱμάντας περιτιθέασιν ὥσθʼ ὑπʼ ἀλγηδόνων εἴκειν τοῖς δεσμοῖς καὶ ἡσυχάζειν· τῶν δʼ ἁλόντων ἀπολέξαντες τοὺς πρεσβυτέρους ἢ νεωτέρους τῆς χρείας τοὺς λοιποὺς ἀπάγουσιν εἰς τοὺς σταθμούς, δήσαντες δὲ τοὺς μὲν πόδας πρὸς ἀλλήλους τοὺς δὲ αὐχένας πρὸς κίονα εὖ πεπηγότα, δαμάζουσι λιμῷ· ἔπειτα χλόῃ καλάμου καὶ πόας ἀναλαμβάνουσι· μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα πειθαρχεῖν διδάσκουσι, τοὺς μὲν διὰ λόγου τοὺς δὲ μελισμῷ τινι καὶ τυμπανισμῷ κηλοῦντες· σπάνιοι δʼ οἱ δυστιθάσευτοι· φύσει γὰρ διάκεινται πράως καὶ ἡμέρως, ὥστʼ ἐγγὺς εἶναι λογικῷ ζῴῳ· οἱ δὲ καὶ ἐξαίμους τοὺς ἡνιόχους ἐν τοῖς ἀγῶσι πεσόντας ἀνελόμενοι σώζουσιν ἐκ τῆς μάχης, τοὺς δὲ ὑποδύντας μεταξὺ τῶν προσθίων ποδῶν ὑπερμαχόμενοι διέσωσαν· τῶν δὲ χορτοφόρων καὶ διδασκάλων εἴ τινα παρὰ θυμὸν ἀπέκτειναν, οὕτως ἐπιποθοῦσιν ὥσθʼ ὑπʼ ἀνίας ἀπέχεσθαι τροφῆς, ἔστι δʼ ὅτε καὶ ἀποκαρτερεῖν.
The manner of hunting the elephant is as follows: Round a bare spot a ditch is dug, of about four or five stadia in extent, and at the place of entrance a very narrow bridge is constructed. Into the enclosure three or four of the tamest female elephants are driven. The men themselves lie in wait under cover of concealed huts. The wild elephants do not approach the females by day, but at night they enter the enclosure one by one; when they have passed the entrance, the men secretly close it. They then introduce the strongest of the tame combatants, the drivers of which engage with the wild animals, and also wear them out by famine; when the latter are exhausted by fatigue, the boldest of the drivers gets down unobserved, and creeps under the belly of his own elephant. From this position he creeps beneath the belly of the wild elephant, and ties his legs together; when this is done, a signal is given to the tame elephants to beat those which are tied by the legs, till they fall to the ground. After they have fallen down, they fasten the wild and tame elephants together by the neck with thongs of raw cow-hide, and, in order that they may not be able to shake off those who are attempting to mount them, cuts are made round the neck, and thongs of leather are put into these incisions, so that they submit to their bonds through pain, and so remain quiet. Among the elephants which are taken, those are rejected which are too old or too young for service; the remainder are led away to the stables. They tie their feet one to another, and their necks to a pillar firmly fastened in the ground, and tame them by hunger. They recruit their strength afterwards with green cane and grass. They then teach them to obey; some by words; others they pacify by tunes, accompanied with the beating of a drum. Few are difficult to be tamed; for they are naturally of a mild and gentle disposition, so as to approximate to the character of a rational animal. Some have taken up their drivers, who have fallen on the ground lifeless, and carried them safe out of battle. Others have fought, and protected their drivers, who have crept between their fore-legs. If they have killed any of their feeders or masters in anger, they feel their loss so much that they refuse their food through grief, and sometimes die of hunger.
βιβάζονται δὲ καὶ τίκτουσιν ὡς ἵπποι τοῦ ἔαρος μάλιστα· καιρὸς δʼ ἐστὶ τῷ μὲν ἄρρενι, ἐπειδὰν οἴστρῳ κατέχηται καὶ ἀγριαίνῃ· τότε δὴ καὶ λίπους τι διὰ τῆς ἀναπνοῆς ἀνίησιν, ἣν ἴσχει παρὰ τοὺς κροτάφους· ταῖς δὲ θηλείαις, ὅταν ὁ αὐτὸς οὗτος πόρος ἀνεῳγὼς τυγχάνῃ. κύουσι δὲ τοὺς μὲν πλείστους ὀκτωκαίδεκα μῆνας ἐλαχίστους δʼ ἑκκαίδεκα· τρέφει δʼ ἡ μήτηρ ἓξ ἔτη· ζῶσι δʼ ὅσον μακροβιώτατοι ἄνθρωποι οἱ πολλοί, τινὲς δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ διακόσια διατείνουσιν ἔτη· πολύνοσοι δὲ καὶ δυσίατοι. ἄκος δὲ πρὸς ὀφθαλμίαν μὲν βόειον γάλα προσκλυζόμενον, τοῖς πλείστοις δὲ τῶν νοσημάτων ὁ μέλας οἶνος πινόμενος, τραύμασι δὲ ποτὸν μὲν βούτυρον (ἐξάγει γὰρ τὰ σιδήρια), τὰ δʼ ἕλκη σαρξὶν ὑείαις πυριῶσιν. Ὀνησίκριτος δὲ καὶ ἕως τριακοσίων ἐτῶν ζῆν φησι, σπάνιον δὲ καὶ ἕως πεντακοσίων, κρατίστους δʼ εἶναι περὶ τὰ διακόσια ἔτη, κυΐσκεσθαι δὲ δεκαετίαν. μείζους δὲ τῶν Λιβυκῶν καὶ ἐρρωμενεστέρους ἐκεῖνός τε εἴρηκε καὶ ἄλλοι· ταῖς γοῦν προβοσκίσιν ἐπάλξεις καθαιρεῖν καὶ δένδρα ἀνασπᾶν πρόρριζα διανισταμένους εἰς τοὺς ὀπισθίους πόδας. Νέαρχος δὲ καὶ ποδάγρας ἐν ταῖς θήραις τίθεσθαι κατά τινας συνδρόμους φησί, συνελαύνεσθαι δʼ ὑπὸ τῶν τιθασῶν τοὺς ἀγρίους εἰς ταύτας, κρειττόνων ὄντων καὶ ἡνιοχουμένων. οὕτως δʼ εὐτιθασεύτους εἶναι, ὥστε καὶ λιθάζειν ἐπὶ σκοπὸν μανθάνειν καὶ ὅπλοις χρῆσθαι νεῖν τε κάλλιστα· μέγιστόν τε νομίζεσθαι κτῆμα ἐλεφάντων ἅρμα· ἄγεσθαι δʼ ὑπὸ ζυγὸν * καὶ καμήλους· γυναῖκα δʼ εὐδοκιμεῖν εἰ λάβοι παρὰ ἐραστοῦ δῶρον ἐλέφαντα. οὗτος ὁ λόγος οὐχ ὁμολογεῖ τῷ φήσαντι μόνων βασιλέων εἶναι κτῆμα ἵππον καὶ ἐλέφαντα.
They copulate like horses, and produce young chiefly in the spring. It is the season for the male, when he is in heat and is ferocious. At this period he discharges some fatty matter through an opening in the temples. It is the season also for the females, when this same passage is open, Eighteen months is the longest, and sixteen the shortest period that they go with young. The dam suckles her young six years, Many of them live as long as men who attain to the greatest longevity, some even to the protracted age of two hundred years.
They are subject to many diseases, which are difficult to be cured. A remedy for diseases of the eye is to bathe them with cow’s milk. For complaints in general, they drink dark wine. In cases of wounds, they drink butter; for it draws out iron instruments, Their sores are fomented with swine’s flesh.
Onesicritus says, that they live three hundred years, and rarely five hundred; and that they go with young ten years. He and other writers say, that they are larger and stronger than the African elephants. They will pull down with their trunks battlements, and uproot trees, standing erect upon their bind feet.
According to Nearchus, traps are laid in the hunting grounds, at certain places where roads meet; the wild elephants are forced into the ‘ oils by the tame elephants, which are stronger, and guided by a driver. They become so tame and docile, that they learn even to throw a stone at a mark, to use military weapons, and to be excellent swimmers. A chariot drawn by elephants is esteemed a most important possession, and they are driven without bridles.
A woman is greatly honoured who receives from her lover a present of an elephant, but this does not agree with what he said before, that a horse and an elephant are the property of kings alone.
τῶν δὲ μυρμήκων τῶν χρυσωρύχων δέρματα ἰδεῖν φησιν οὗτος παρδαλέαις ὅμοια. Μεγασθένης δὲ περὶ τῶν μυρμήκων οὕτω φησὶν ὅτι ἐν Δέρδαις, ἔθνει μεγάλῳ τῶν προσεῴων καὶ ὀρεινῶν Ἰνδῶν, ὀροπέδιον εἴη τρισχιλίων πως τὸν κύκλον σταδίων· ὑποκειμένων δὲ τούτῳ χρυσωρυχείων οἱ μεταλλεύοντες εἶεν μύρμηκες, θηρία ἀλωπέκων οὐκ ἐλάττω, τάχος ὑπερφυὲς ἔχοντα καὶ ζῶντα ἀπὸ θήρας· ὀρύττει δὲ χειμῶνι τὴν γῆν, σωρεύει τε πρὸς τοῖς στομίοις, καθάπερ οἱ ἀσφάλακες· ψῆγμα δʼ ἐστὶ χρυσοῦ μικρᾶς ἑψήσεως δεόμενον· τοῦθʼ ὑποζυγίοις μετίασιν οἱ πλησιόχωροι λάθρᾳ· φανερῶς γὰρ διαμάχονται καὶ διώκουσι φεύγοντας, καταλαβόντες δὲ διαχρῶνται καὶ αὐτοὺς καὶ τὰ ὑποζύγια. πρὸς δὲ τὸ λαθεῖν κρέα θήρεια προτιθέασι κατὰ μέρη· περισπασθέντων δʼ ἀναιροῦνται τὸ ψῆγμα καὶ τοῦ τυχόντος τοῖς ἐμπόροις ἀργὸν διατίθενται, χωνεύειν οὐκ εἰδότες.
This writer says that he saw skins of the myrmeces (or ants), which dig up gold, as large as the skins of leopards. Megasthenes, however, speaking of the myrmeces, says, among the Derdae a populous nation of the Indians, living towards the east, and among the mountains, there was a mountain plain of about 3000 stadia in circumference; that below this plain were mines containing gold, which the myrmeces, in size not less than foxes, dig up. They are excessively fleet, and subsist on what they catch. In winter they dig holes, and pile up the earth in heaps, like moles, at the mouths of the openings.
The gold-dust which they obtain requires little preparation by fire. The neighbouring people go after it by stealth, with beasts of burden; for if it is done openly, the myrmeces fight furiously, pursuing those that run away, and if they seize them, kill them and the beasts. In order to prevent discovery, they place in various parts pieces of the flesh of wild beasts, and when the myrmeces are dispersed in various directions. they take away the gold-dust, and, not being acquainted with the mode of smelting it, dispose of it in its rude state at any price to merchants.
Ἐπεὶ δʼ ἐν τῷ περὶ τῶν θηρευτῶν λόγῳ καὶ περὶ τῶν θηρίων ἐμνήσθημεν ὧν τε Μεγασθένης εἶπε καὶ ἄλλοι, προσθετέον καὶ ταῦτα. ὁ μὲν γὰρ Νέαρχος τὸ τῶν ἑρπετῶν θαυμάζει πλῆθος καὶ τὴν κακίαν· ἀναφεύγειν γὰρ ἐκ τῶν πεδίων εἰς τὰς κατοικίας τὰς διαλανθανούσας ἐν ταῖς ἐπικλύσεσι καὶ πληροῦν τοὺς οἴκους· διὰ δὴ τοῦτο καὶ ὑψηλὰς ποιεῖσθαι τὰς κλίνας, ἔστι δʼ ὅτε καὶ ἐξοικίζεσθαι πλεονασάντων· εἰ δὲ μὴ τὸ πολὺ τοῦ πλήθους ὑπὸ τῶν ὑδάτων διεφθείρετο, κἂν ἐρημωθῆναι τὴν χώραν. καὶ τὴν μικρότητα δʼ αὐτῶν εἶναι χαλεπὴν καὶ τὴν ὑπερβολὴν τοῦ μεγέθους, τὴν μὲν διὰ τὸ δυσφύλακτον τὴν δὲ διʼ ἰσχύν, ὅπου καὶ ἑκκαιδεκαπήχεις ἐχίδνας ὁρᾶσθαι· ἐπῳδοὺς δὲ περιφοιτᾶν ἰᾶσθαι πεπιστευμένους, καὶ εἶναι σχεδόν τι μόνην ταύτην ἰατρικήν· μηδὲ γὰρ νόσους εἶναι πολλὰς διὰ τὴν λιτότητα τῆς διαίτης καὶ τὴν ἀοινίαν· εἰ δὲ γένοιντο, ἰᾶσθαι τοὺς σοφιστάς. Ἀριστόβουλος δὲ τῶν θρυλουμένων μεγεθῶν οὐδὲν ἰδεῖν φησιν, ἔχιδναν δὲ μόνον ἐννέα πηχῶν καὶ σπιθαμῆς. καὶ ἡμεῖς δʼ ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ κομισθεῖσαν ἐκεῖθεν τηλικαύτην πως εἴδομεν. ἔχεις δὲ πολλούς φησι πολὺ ἐλάττους καὶ ἀσπίδας, σκορπίους δὲ μεγάλους. οὐδὲν δὲ τούτων οὕτως ὀχλεῖν ὡς τὰ λεπτὰ ὀφείδια οὐ μείζω σπιθαμιαίων· εὑρίσκεσθαι γὰρ ἐν σκηναῖς, ἐν σκεύεσιν, ἐν θριγγοῖς ἐγκεκρυμμένα· τοὺς δὲ πληγέντας αἱμορροεῖν ἐκ παντὸς πόρου μετὰ ἐπωδυνίας, ἔπειτα ἀποθνήσκειν, εἰ μὴ βοηθήσει τις εὐθύς· τὴν δὲ βοήθειαν ῥᾳδίαν εἶναι διὰ τὴν ἀρετὴν τῶν Ἰνδικῶν ῥιζῶν καὶ φαρμάκων. κροκοδείλους τε οὔτε πολλοὺς οὔτε βλαπτικοὺς ἀνθρώπων ἐν τῷ Ἰνδῷ φησιν εὑρίσκεσθαι, καὶ τὰ ἄλλα δὲ ζῷα τὰ πλεῖστα τὰ αὐτὰ ἅπερ ἐν τῷ Νείλῳ γεννᾶσθαι πλὴν ἵππου ποταμίου· Ὀνησίκριτος δὲ καὶ τοῦτόν φησι γεννᾶσθαι. τῶν δʼ ἐκ θαλάττης φησὶν ὁ Ἀριστόβουλος εἰς μὲν τὸν Νεῖλον ἀνατρέχειν μηδὲν ἔξω θρίσσης καὶ κεστρέως καὶ δελφῖνος διὰ τοὺς κροκοδείλους, ἐν δὲ τῷ Ἰνδῷ πλῆθος· τῶν δὲ καρίδων τὰς μὲν μικρὰς μέχρι * ὄρους ἀναθεῖν, τὰς δὲ μεγάλας μέχρι τῶν συμβολῶν τοῦ τε Ἰνδοῦ καὶ τοῦ Ἀκεσίνου. περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν θηρίων τοσαῦτα λέγεται· ἐπανιόντες δʼ ἐπὶ τὸν Μεγασθένη λέγωμεν τὰ ἑξῆς ὧν ἀπελίπομεν.
Having mentioned what Megasthenes and other writers relate of the hunters and the beasts of prey, we must add the following particulars.
Nearchus is surprised at the multitude and the noxious nature of the tribe of reptiles. They retreat from the plains to the settlements, which are not covered with water at the period of inundations, and fill the houses. For this reason the inhabitants raise their beds at some height from the ground, and are sometimes compelled to abandon their dwellings, when they are infested by great multitudes of these animals; and, if a great proportion of these multitudes were not destroyed by the waters, the country would be a desert. Both the minuteness of some animals and the excessive magnitude of others are causes of danger; the former, because it is difficult to guard against their attacks; the latter, on account of their strength, for snakes are to be seen of sixteen cubits in length. Charmers go about the country, and are supposed to cure wounds made by serpents. This seems to comprise nearly their whole art of medicine, for disease is not frequent among them, which is owing to their frugal manner of life, and to the absence of wine; whenever diseases do occur, they are treated by the Sophistae (or wise men).
Aristobulus says, that he saw no animals of these pretended magnitudes, except a snake, which was nine cubits and a span in length. And I myself saw one in Egypt, nearly of the same size, which was brought from India. He says also, that he saw many serpents of a much inferior size, and asps and large scorpions. None of these, however, are so noxious as the slender small serpents, a span long, which are found concealed in tents, in vessels, and in hedges. Persons wounded by them bleed from every pore, suffering great pain, and die, unless they have immediate assistance; but this assistance is easily obtained, by means of the virtues of the Indian roots and drugs.
Few crocodiles, he says, are found in the Indus, and these are harmless, but most of the other animals, except the hippopotamus, are the same as those found in the Nile; but Onesicritus says that this animal also is found there.
According to Aristobulus, none of the sea fish ascend the Nile from the sea, except the shad, the grey mullet, and dolphin, on account of the crocodiles; but great numbers ascend the Indus. Small craw-fish go up as far as the mountains, and the larger as far as the confluence of the Indus and the Acesines.
So much then on the subject of the wild animals of India. We shall return to Megasthenes, and resume our account where we digressed.
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