̔́οτι δὲ καὶ τὸ ὄφελος μέγα παντὶ τῷ παραλαβόντι τὴν τοιαύτην ἱστορίαν ἔκ τε τῆς παλαιᾶς μνήμης δῆλον καὶ ἐκ τοῦ λόγου. οἱ γοῦν ποιηταὶ φρονιμωτάτους τῶν ἡρώων ἀποφαίνουσι τοὺς ἀποδημήσαντας πολλαχοῦ καὶ πλανηθέντας· ἐν μεγάλῳ γὰρ τίθενται τὸ πολλῶν ἀνθρώπων ἰδεῖν ἄστεα καὶ νόον γνῶναι. καὶ ὁ Νέστωρ σεμνύνεται διότι τοῖς Λαπίθαις ὡμίλησεν, ἐλθὼν μετάπεμπτος τηλόθεν ἐξ ἀπίης γαίης· καλέσαντο γὰρ αὐτοί. καὶ ὁ Μενέλαος ὡσαύτως Κύπρον Φοινίκην τε καὶ Αἰγυπτίους ἐπαληθεὶς Αἰθίοπας θʼ ἱκόμην καὶ Σιδονίους καὶ Ἐρεμβοὺς καὶ Λιβύην, ἵνα τʼ ἄρνες ἄφαρ κεραοὶ τελέθουσι, προσθεὶς καὶ τὸ ἰδίωμα τῆς χώρας τρὶς γὰρ τίκτει μῆλα τελεσφόρον εἰς ἐνιαυτόν. πάντα γὰρ τὰ τοιαῦτα παρασκευαί τινες εἰς φρόνησιν μεγάλαι τῷ μαθεῖν τῆς χώρας τὴν φύσιν καὶ ζῴων καὶ φυτῶν ἰδέας. προσθεῖναι δὲ καὶ τὰ τῆς θαλάττης· ἀμφίβιοι γὰρ τρόπον τινά ἐσμεν καὶ οὐ μᾶλλον χερσαῖοι ἢ θαλάττιοι. καὶ τὸν Ἡρακλέα εἰκὸς ἀπὸ τῆς πολλῆς ἐμπειρίας τε καὶ ἱστορίας λεχθῆναι μεγάλων ἐπιίστορα ἔργων. ἔκ τε δὴ τῆς παλαιᾶς μνήμης καὶ ἐκ τοῦ λόγου μαρτυρεῖται τὰ λεχθέντα ἐν ἀρχαῖς ὑφʼ ἡμῶν, διαφερόντως δʼ ἐπάγεσθαι δοκεῖ μοι πρὸς τὰ νῦν ἐκεῖνος ὁ λόγος, διότι τῆς γεωγραφίας τὸ πλέον ἐστὶ πρὸς τὰς χρείας τὰς πολιτικάς. χώρα γὰρ τῶν πράξεων ἐστὶ γῆ καὶ θάλαττα, ἣν οἰκοῦμεν, τῶν μὲν μικρῶν μικρὰ τῶν δὲ μεγάλων μεγάλη, μεγίστη δʼ ἡ σύμπασα, ἥνπερ ἰδίως καλοῦμεν οἰκουμένην, ὥστε τῶν μεγίστων πράξεων αὕτη ἂν εἴη χώρα, μέγιστοι δὲ τῶν στρατηλατῶν, ὅσοι δύνανται γῆς καὶ θαλάττης ἄρχειν, ἔθνη καὶ πόλεις συνάγοντες εἰς μίαν ἐξουσίαν καὶ διοίκησιν πολιτικήν. δῆλον οὖν ὅτι ἡ γεωγραφικὴ πᾶσα ἐπὶ τὰς πράξεις ἀνάγεται τὰς ἡγεμονικάς, διατιθεῖσα ἠπείρους καὶ πελάγη τὰ μὲν ἐντὸς τὰ δὲ ἐκτὸς τῆς συμπάσης οἰκουμένης. πρὸς τούτους δὲ ἡ διάθεσις, οἷς διαφέρει ταῦτα ἔχειν οὕτως ἢ ἑτέρως καὶ γνώριμα εἶναι ἢ μὴ γνώριμα. βέλτιον γὰρ ἂν διαχειρίζοιεν ἕκαστα εἰδότες τὴν χώραν ὁπόση τις καὶ πῶς κειμένη τυγχάνει καὶ τίνας διαφορὰς ἴσχουσα τάς τʼ ἐν τῷ περιέχοντι καὶ τὰς ἐν αὐτῇ. ἄλλων δὲ κατʼ ἄλλα μέρη δυναστευόντων καὶ ἀπʼ ἄλλης ἑστίας καὶ ἀρχῆς τὰς πράξεις προχειριζομένων καὶ ἐπεκτεινόντων τὸ τῆς ἡγεμονίας μέγεθος, οὐκ ἐπʼ ἴσης δυνατὸν οὔτʼ ἐκείνοις ἅπαντα γνωρίζειν οὔτε τοῖς γεωγραφοῦσιν, ἀλλὰ τὸ μᾶλλον καὶ ἧττον πολὺ ἐν ἀμφοτέροις καθορᾶται τούτοις. μόλις γὰρ τὸ ἐπʼ ἴσης πάντʼ εἶναι φανερὰ συμβαίη τῆς συμπάσης οἰκουμένης ὑπὸ μίαν ἀρχὴν καὶ πολιτείαν ὑπηγμένης· ἀλλʼ οὐδʼ οὕτως, ἀλλὰ τὰ ἐγγυτέρω μᾶλλον ἂν γνωρίζοιτο. κἂν προσήκοι ταῦτα διὰ πλειόνων ἐμφανίζειν, ἵνʼ εἴη γνώριμα· ταῦτα γὰρ καὶ τῆς χρείας ἐγγυτέρω ἐστίν. ὥστʼ οὐκ ἂν εἴη θαυμαστὸν οὐδʼ εἰ ἄλλος μὲν Ἰνδοῖς προσήκοι χωρογράφος, ἄλλος δὲ Αἰθίοψιν, ἄλλος δὲ Ἕλλησι καὶ Ῥωμαίοις. τί γὰρ ἂν προσήκοι τῷ παρʼ Ἰνδοῖς γεωγράφῳ καὶ τὰ κατὰ Βοιωτοὺς οὕτω φράζειν ὡς Ὅμηρος οἵθʼ Ὑρίην ἐνέμοντο καὶ Αὐλίδα πετρήεσσαν Σχοῖνόν τε Σκῶλόν τε; ἡμῖν δὲ προσήκει, τὰ δὲ παρʼ Ἰνδοῖς οὕτω καὶ τὰ καθʼ ἕκαστα οὐκέτι· οὐδὲ γὰρ ἡ χρεία ἐπάγεται· μέτρον δʼ αὕτη μάλιστα τῆς τοιαύτης ἐμπειρίας.
To the various subjects which it embraces let us add natural history, or the history of the animals, plants, and other different productions of the earth and sea, whether serviceable or useless, and my original statement will, I think, carry perfect conviction with it.
That he who should undertake this work would be a benefactor to mankind, reason and the voice of antiquity agree. The poets feign that they were the wisest heroes who travelled and wandered most in foreign climes: and to be familiar with many countries, and the disposition of the inhabitants, is, according to them, of vast importance. Nestor prides himself on having associated with the Lapithae, to whom he went, having been invited thither from the Apian land afar.
So does Menelaus:— Cyprus, Phoenicia, Sidon, and the shores / Of Egypt, roaming without hope I reach’d; / In distant Ethiopia thence arrived, / And Libya, where the lambs their foreheads show / With budding horns defended soon as yean’d. / Adding as a peculiarity of the country, There thrice within the year the flocks produce. / And of Egypt:—Where the sustaining earth is most prolific. And Thebes, the city with an hundred gates, / Whence twenty thousand chariots rush to war. /
Such information greatly enlarges our sphere of knowledge, by informing us of the nature of the country, its botanical and zoological peculiarities. To these should be added its marine history; for we are in a certain sense amphibious, not exclusively connected with the land, but with the sea as well. Hercules, on account of his vast experience and observation, was described as skilled in mighty works.
All that we have previously stated is confirmed both by the testimony of antiquity and by reason. One consideration however appears to bear in a peculiar manner on the case in point; viz. the importance of geography in a political view. For the sea and the earth in which we dwell furnish theatres for action; limited, for limited actions; vast, for grander deeds; but that which contains them all, and is the scene of the greatest undertakings, constitutes what we term the habitable earth; and they are the greatest generals who, subduing nations and kingdoms under one sceptre, and one political administration, have acquired dominion over land and sea. It is clear then, that geography is essential to all the transactions of the statesman, informing us, as it does, of the position of the continents, seas, and oceans of the whole habitable earth. Information of especial interest to those who are concerned to know the exact truth of such particulars, and whether the places have been explored or not: for government will certainly be better administered where the size and position of the country, its own peculiarities, and those of the surrounding districts, are understood. Forasmuch as there are many sovereigns who rule in different regions, and some stretch their dominion over others’ territories, and undertake the government of different nations and kingdoms, and thus enlarge the extent of their dominion, it is not possible that either themselves, nor yet writers on geography, should be equally acquainted with the whole, but to both there is a great deal more or less known. Indeed, were the whole earth under one government and one administration, it is hardly possible that we should be informed of every locality in an equal degree; for even then we should be most acquainted with the places nearest us: and after all, it is better that we should have a more perfect description of these, since, on account of their proximity, there is greater reed for it. We see there is no reason to be surprised that there should be one chorographer for the Indians, another for the Ethiopians, and a third for the Greeks and Romans. What use would it be to the Indians if a geographer should thus describe Boeotia to them, in the words of Homer:— The dwellers on the rocks / Of Aulis follow’d, with the hardy clans / Of Hyria, Schoenus, Scolus. / To us this is of value, while to be acquainted with the Indies and their various territorial divisions would be useless, as it could lead to no advantage, which is the only criterion of the worth of such knowledge.
καὶ τοῦτο καὶ ἐν μικροῖς μὲν δῆλόν ἐστιν, οἷον ἐν τοῖς κυνηγεσίοις· ἄμεινον γὰρ ἂν θηρεύσειέ τις εἰδὼς τὴν ὕλην ὁποία τις καὶ πόση, καὶ στρατοπεδεῦσαι δὲ καλῶς ἐν χωρίῳ τοῦ εἰδότος ἐστὶ καὶ ἐνεδρεῦσαι καὶ ὁδεῦσαι· ἀλλʼ ἐν τοῖς μεγάλοις ἐστὶ τηλαυγέστερον, ὅσῳπερ καὶ τὰ ἆθλα μείζω τὰ τῆς ἐμπειρίας καὶ τὰ σφάλματα τὰ ἐκ τῆς ἀπειρίας. ὁ μέντοι Ἀγαμέμνονος στόλος τὴν Μυσίαν ὡς τὴν Τρῳάδα πορθῶν ἐπαλινδρόμησεν αἰσχρῶς. Πέρσαι δὲ καὶ Λίβυες τοὺς πορθμοὺς ὑπονοήσαντες εἶναι τυφλοὺς στενωπούς, ἐγγὺς μὲν ἦλθον κινδύνων μεγάλων, τρόπαια δὲ τῆς ἀγνοίας κατέλιπον, οἱ μὲν τὸν τοῦ Σαλγανέως τάφον πρὸς τῷ εὐρίπῳ τῷ Χαλκιδικῷ τοῦ σφαγέντος ὑπὸ τῶν Περσῶν ὡς καθοδηγήσαντος φαύλως ἀπὸ Μαλιέων ἐπὶ τὸν εὔριπον τὸν στόλον, οἱ δὲ τὸ τοῦ Πελώρου μνῆμα καὶ τούτου διαφθαρέντος κατὰ τὴν ὁμοίαν αἰτίαν· πλήρης τε ναυαγίων ἡ Ἑλλὰς ὑπῆρξε κατὰ τὴν Ξέρξου στρατείαν. καὶ ἡ τῶν Αἰολέων δὲ καὶ ἡ τῶν Ἰώνων ἀποικία πολλὰ τοιαῦτα πταίσματα παραδέδωκεν. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ κατορθώματα, ὅπου τι κατορθωθῆναι συνέβη παρὰ τὴν ἐμπειρίαν τῶν τόπων· καθάπερ ἐν τοῖς περὶ Θερμοπύλας στενοῖς ὁ Ἐφιάλτης λέγεται δείξας τὴν διὰ τῶν ὀρῶν ἀτραπὸν τοῖς Πέρσαις ὑποχειρίους αὐτοῖς ποιῆσαι τοὺς περὶ Λεωνίδαν καὶ δέξασθαι τοὺς βαρβάρους εἴσω Πυλῶν. ἐάσας δὲ τὰ παλαιὰ τὴν νῦν Ῥωμαίων στρατείαν ἐπὶ Παρθυαίους ἱκανὸν ἡγοῦμαι τούτων τεκμήριον· ὡς δʼ αὕτως τὴν ἐπὶ Γερμανοὺς καὶ Κελτούς, ἐν ἕλεσι καὶ δρυμοῖς ἀβάτοις ἐρημίαις τε τοπομαχούντων τῶν βαρβάρων καὶ τὰ ἐγγὺς πόρρω ποιούντων τοῖς ἀγνοοῦσι καὶ τὰς ὁδοὺς ἐπικρυπτομένων καὶ τὰς εὐπορίας τροφῆς τε καὶ τῶν ἄλλων.
Even if we descend to the consideration of such trivial matters as hunting, the case is still the same; for he will be most successful in the chase who is acquainted with the size and nature of the wood, and one familiar with the locality will be the most competent to superintend an encampment, an ambush, or a march. But it is in great undertakings that the truth shines out in all its brilliancy, for here, while the success resulting from knowledge is grand, the consequences of ignorance are disastrous. The fleet of Agamemnon, for instance, ravaging Mysia, as if it had been the Trojan territory, was compelled to a shameful retreat. Likewise the Persians and Libyans, supposing certain straits to be impassable, were very near falling into great perils, and have left behind them memorials of their ignorance; the former a monument to Salganeus on the Euripus, near Chalcis, whom the Persians slew, for, as they thought, falsely conducting their fleet from the Gulf of Malea to the Euripus; and the latter to the memory of Pelorus, who was executed on a like occasion. At the time of the expedition of Xerxes, the coasts of Greece were covered with wrecks, and the emigrations from Aeolia and Ionia furnish numerous instances of the same calamity. On the other hand, matters have come to a prosperous termination, when judiciously directed by a knowledge of the locality. Thus it was at the pass of Thermopylae that Ephialtes is reported to have pointed out to the Persians a pathway over the mountains, and so placed the band of Leonidas at their mercy, and opened to the Barbarians a passage into Pylae. But passing over ancient occurrences, we think that the late expeditions of the Romans against the Parthians furnish an excellent example, where, as in those against the Germans and Kelts, the Barbarians, taking advantage of their situation, [carried on the war] in marshes, woods, and pathless deserts, deceiving the ignorant enemy as to the position of different places, and concealing the roads, and the means of obtaining food and necessaries.
τὸ μὲν δὴ πλέον, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, πρὸς τοὺς ἡγεμονικοὺς βίους καὶ τὰς χρείας ἐστίν. ἔστι δὲ καὶ τῆς ἠθικῆς φιλοσοφίας καὶ πολιτικῆς τὸ πλέον περὶ τοὺς ἡγεμονικοὺς βίους. σημεῖον δέ· τὰς γὰρ τῶν πολιτειῶν διαφορὰς ἀπὸ τῶν ἡγεμονιῶν διακρίνομεν, ἄλλην μὲν ἡγεμονίαν τιθέντες τὴν μοναρχίαν, ἣν καὶ βασιλείαν καλοῦμεν, ἄλλην δὲ τὴν ἀριστοκρατίαν, τρίτην δὲ τὴν δημοκρατίαν. τοσαύτας δὲ καὶ τὰς πολιτείας νομίζομεν, ὁμωνύμως καλοῦντες ὡς ἂν ἀπʼ ἐκείνων τὴν ἀρχὴν ἐχούσας τῆς εἰδοποιίας· ἄλλος γὰρ νόμος τὸ τοῦ βασιλέως πρόσταγμα, ἄλλος δὲ τὸ τῶν ἀρίστων καὶ τὸ τοῦ δήμου. τύπος δὲ καὶ σχῆμα πολιτείας ὁ νόμος. διὰ τοῦτο δὲ καὶ τὸ δίκαιον εἶπόν τινες τὸ τοῦ κρείττονος συμφέρον. εἴπερ οὖν ἡ πολιτικὴ φιλοσοφία περὶ τοὺς ἡγεμόνας τὸ πλέον ἐστίν, ἔστι δὲ καὶ ἡ γεωγραφία περὶ τὰς ἡγεμονικὰς χρείας, ἔχοι ἄν τι πλεονέκτημα καὶ αὕτη παρὰ τοῦτο.
As we have said, this science has an especial reference to the occupations and requirements of statesmen, with whom also political and ethical philosophy is mainly concerned; and here is an evidence. We distinguish the different kinds of civil government by the office of their chief men, denominating one government a monarchy, or kingdom, another an aristocracy, a third a democracy; for so many we consider are the forms of government, and we designate them by these names, because from them they derive their primary characteristic. For the laws which emanate from the sovereign, from the aristocracy, and from the people all are different. The law is in fact a type of the form of government. It is on this account that some define right to be the interest of the strongest. If, therefore, political philosophy is advantageous to the ruler, and geography in the actual government of the country, this latter seems to possess some little superiority. This superiority is most observable in real service.
Ἀλλὰ τοῦτο μὲν τὸ πλεονέκτημα πρὸς τὰς πράξεις· ἔχει δέ τινα καὶ θεωρίαν οὐ φαύλην ἡ πραγματεία, τὴν μὲν τεχνικήν τε καὶ μαθηματικὴν καὶ φυσικήν, τὴν δὲ ἐν ἱστορίᾳ καὶ μύθοις κειμένην οὐδὲν οὖσι πρὸς τὰς πράξεις· οἷον εἴ τις λέγοι τὰ περὶ τὴν Ὀδυσσέως πλάνην καὶ Μενελάου καὶ Ἰάσονος, εἰς φρόνησιν μὲν οὐδὲν ἂν συλλαμβάνειν δόξειεν, ἣν ὁ πράττων ζητεῖ, πλὴν εἰ καταμίσγοι καὶ τῶν γενομένων ἀναγκαίων τὰ παραδείγματα χρήσιμα· διαγωγὴν δʼ ὅμως πορίζοι ἂν οὐκ ἀνελεύθερον τῷ ἐπιβάλλοντι ἐπὶ τοὺς τόπους τοὺς παρασχόντας τὴν μυθοποιίαν. καὶ γὰρ τοῦτο ζητοῦσιν οἱ πράττοντες διὰ τὸ ἔνδοξον καὶ τὸ ἡδύ, ἀλλʼ οὐκ ἐπὶ πολύ· μᾶλλον γὰρ σπουδάζουσιν, ὡς εἰκός, περὶ τὰ χρήσιμα. διόπερ καὶ τῷ γεωγράφῳ τούτων μᾶλλον ἢ ἐκείνων ἐπιμελητέον. ὡς δʼ αὕτως ἔχει καὶ περὶ τῆς ἱστορίας καὶ περὶ τῶν μαθημάτων· καὶ γὰρ τούτων τὸ χρήσιμον ἀεὶ μᾶλλον ληπτέον καὶ τὸ πιστότερον.
But even the theoretical portion of geography is by no means contemptible. On the one hand, it embraces the arts, mathematics, and natural science; on the other, history and fable. Not that this latter can have any distinct advantage: for instance, if any one should relate to us the wanderings of Ulysses, Menelaus, and Jason, he would not seem to have added directly to our fund of practical knowledge thereby, (which is the only thing men of the world are interested in,) unless he should convey useful examples of what those wanderers were compelled to suffer, and at the same time afford matter of rational amusement to those who interest themselves in the places which gave birth to such fables. Practical men interest themselves in these pursuits, since they are at once commendable, and afford them pleasure; but yet not to any great extent. In this class, too, will be found those whose main object in life is pleasure and respectability: but these by no means constitute the majority of mankind, who naturally prefer that which holds out some direct advantage. The geographer should therefore chiefly devote himself to what is practically important. He should follow the same rule in regard to history and the mathematics, selecting always that which is most useful, most intelligible, and most authentic.
μάλιστα δὲ δοκεῖ, καθάπερ εἴρηται, γεωμετρίας τε καὶ ἀστρονομίας δεῖν τῇ τοιαύτῃ ὑποθέσει. καὶ δεῖ μὲν ὡς ἀληθῶς· σχήματα γὰρ καὶ κλίματα καὶ μεγέθη καὶ τὰ ἄλλα τὰ τούτοις οἰκεῖα οὐχ οἷόν τε λαβεῖν καλῶς ἄνευ τῆς τοιαύτης μεθόδου. ἀλλʼ ὥσπερ τὰ περὶ τὴν ἀναμέτρησιν τῆς ὅλης γῆς ἐν ἄλλοις δεικνύουσιν, ἐνταῦθα δὲ ὑποθέσθαι δεῖ καὶ πιστεῦσαι τοῖς ἐκεῖ δειχθεῖσιν […] ὑποθέσθαι δὲ καὶ σφαιροειδῆ μὲν τὸν κόσμον, σφαιροειδῆ δὲ καὶ τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν τῆς γῆς, ἔτι δὲ τούτων πρότερον τὴν ἐπὶ τὸ μέσον τῶν σωμάτων φοράν. ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ἐπεὶ τῆς αἰσθήσεως ἢ τῶν κοινῶν ἐννοιῶν ἐγγύς ἐστιν […] εἰ ἄρα, ἐπισημηνάμενοι ἐπὶ κεφαλαίῳ μικρά· οἷον ὅτι ἡ γῆ σφαιροειδής, ἐκ μὲν τῆς ἐπὶ τὸ μέσον φορᾶς πόρρωθεν ἡ ὑπόμνησις καὶ τοῦ ἕκαστον σῶμα ἐπὶ τὸ αὑτοῦ ἄρτημα νεύειν, ἐκ δὲ τῶν κατὰ πελάγη καὶ τὸν οὐρανὸν φαινομένων ἐγγύθεν· καὶ γὰρ ἡ αἴσθησις ἐπιμαρτυρεῖν δύναται καὶ ἡ κοινὴ ἔννοια. φανερῶς γὰρ ἐπιπροσθεῖ τοῖς πλέουσιν ἡ κυρτότης τῆς θαλάττης, ὥστε μὴ προσβάλλειν τοῖς πόρρω φέγγεσι τοῖς ἐπʼ ἴσον ἐξῃρμένοις τῇ ὄψει. ἐξαρθέντα γοῦν πλέον τῆς ὄψεως ἐφάνη, καίτοι πλέον ἀποσχόντα αὐτῆς· ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ αὐτὴ μετεωρισθεῖσα εἶδε τὰ κεκρυμμένα πρότερον. ὅπερ δηλοῖ καὶ ὁ ποιητής· τοιοῦτον γάρ ἐστι καὶ τό ὀξὺ μάλα προϊδών, μεγάλου ὑπὸ κύματος ἀρθείς. καὶ τοῖς προσπλέουσι δὲ ἀεὶ καὶ μᾶλλον ἀπογυμνοῦται τὰ πρόσγεια μέρη καὶ τὰ φανέντα ἐν ἀρχαῖς ταπεινὰ ἐξαίρεται μᾶλλον. τῶν τε οὐρανίων ἡ περιφορὰ ἐναργής ἐστι καὶ ἄλλως καὶ ἐκ τῶν γνωμονικῶν· ἐκ δὲ τούτων εὐθὺς ὑποτείνει καὶ ἡ ἔννοια, ὅτι ἐρριζωμένης ἐπʼ ἄπειρον τῆς γῆς οὐκ ἂν ἡ τοιαύτη περιφορὰ συνέβαινε. καὶ τὰ περὶ τῶν κλιμάτων δὲ ἐν τοῖς περὶ τῶν οἰκήσεων δείκνυται.
Geometry and astronomy, as we before remarked, seem absolutely indispensable in this science. This, in fact, is evident, that without some such assistance, it would be impossible to be accurately acquainted with the configuration of the earth; its climata, dimensions, and the like information.
As the size of the earth has been demonstrated by other writers, we shall here take for granted and receive as accurate what they have advanced. We shall also assume that the earth is spheroidal, that its surface is likewise spheroidal, and above all, that bodies have a tendency towards its centre, which latter point is clear to the perception of the most average understanding. However we may show summarily that the earth is spheroidal, from the consideration that all things however distant tend to its centre, and that every body is attracted towards its centre of gravity; this is more distinctly proved from observations of the sea and sky, for here the evidence of the senses, and common observation, is alone requisite. The convexity of the sea is a further proof of this to those who have sailed; for they cannot perceive lights at a distance when placed at the same level as their eyes, but if raised on high, they at once become perceptible to vision, though at the same time further removed. So, when the eye is raised, it sees what before was utterly imperceptible. Homer speaks of this when he says, Lifted up on the vast wave he quickly beheld afar. / Sailors, as they approach their destination, behold the shore continually raising itself to their view; and objects which had at first seemed low, begin to elevate themselves. Our gnomons, also, are, among other things, evidence of the revolution of the heavenly bodies; and common sense at once shows us, that if the depth of the earth were infinite, such a revolution could not take place.
Every information respecting the climata is contained in the Treatises on Positions.
νυνὶ δὲ ἐξ ἑτοίμου δεῖ λαβεῖν ἔνια, καὶ ταῦθʼ ὅσα τῷ πολιτικῷ καὶ τῷ στρατηλάτῃ χρήσιμα. οὔτε γὰρ οὕτω δεῖ ἀγνοεῖν τὰ περὶ τὸν οὐρανὸν καὶ τὴν θέσιν τῆς γῆς, ὥστʼ ἐπειδὰν γένηται κατὰ τόπους, καθʼ οὓς ἐξήλλακταί τινα τῶν φαινομένων τοῖς πολλοῖς ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ, ταράττεσθαι καὶ τοιαῦτα λέγειν· ὦ φίλοι, οὐ γάρ τʼ ἴδμεν ὅπη ζόφος, οὐδʼ ὅπη ἠώς, οὐδʼ ὅπη ἠέλιος φαεσίμβροτος εἶσʼ ὑπὸ γαῖαν, οὐδʼ ὅπη ἀννεῖται· οὔθʼ οὕτως ἀκριβοῦν, ὥστε τὰς πανταχοῦ συνανατολάς τε καὶ συγκαταδύσεις καὶ συμμεσουρανήσεις καὶ ἐξάρματα πόλων καὶ τὰ κατὰ κορυφὴν σημεῖα καὶ ὅσα ἄλλα τοιαῦτα κατὰ τὰς μεταπτώσεις τῶν ὁριζόντων ἅμα καὶ τῶν ἀρκτικῶν διαφέροντα ἀπαντᾷ, τὰ μὲν πρὸς τὴν ὄψιν τὰ δὲ καὶ τῇ φύσει, γνωρίζειν ἅπαντα· ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν μηδʼ ὅλως φροντίζειν, πλὴν εἰ θέας φιλοσόφου χάριν, τοῖς δὲ πιστεύειν, κἂν μὴ βλέπῃ τὸ διὰ τί. καὶ γὰρ τοῦτο τοῦ φιλοσοφοῦντος μόνου, τῷ δὲ πολιτικῷ σχολῆς οὐ τοσαύτης μέτεστιν ἢ οὐκ ἀεί. οὐ μὴν οὐδʼ οὕτως ὑπάρχειν ἁπλοῦν δεῖ τὸν ἐντυγχάνοντα τῇ γραφῇ ταύτῃ καὶ ἀργόν, ὥστε μηδὲ σφαῖραν ἰδεῖν, μηδὲ κύκλους ἐν αὐτῇ τοὺς μὲν παραλλήλους τοὺς δʼ ὀρθίους πρὸς τούτους τοὺς δὲ λοξούς, μηδὲ τροπικῶν τε καὶ ἰσημερινοῦ καὶ ζωδιακοῦ θέσιν, διʼ οὗ φερόμενος ὁ ἥλιος τρέπεται καὶ διδάσκει διαφορὰς κλιμάτων τε καὶ ἀνέμων. ταῦτα γὰρ καὶ τὰ περὶ τοὺς ὁρίζοντας καὶ τοὺς ἀρκτικοὺς καὶ ὅσα ἄλλα κατὰ τὴν πρώτην ἀγωγὴν τὴν εἰς τὰ μαθήματα παραδίδοται κατανοήσας τις ἄλλως πως δύναται παρακολουθεῖν τοῖς λεγομένοις ἐνταῦθα. ὁ δὲ μηδʼ εὐθεῖαν γραμμὴν ἢ περιφερῆ μηδὲ κύκλον εἰδώς, μηδὲ σφαιρικὴν ἐπιφάνειαν ἢ ἐπίπεδον, μηδʼ ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ μηδὲ τοὺς ἑπτὰ τῆς μεγάλης ἄρκτου ἀστέρας καταμαθὼν μηδʼ ἄλλο τι τῶν τοιούτων μηδέν, ἢ οὐκ ἂν δέοιτο τῆς πραγματείας ταύτης ἢ οὐχὶ νῦν, ἀλλʼ ἐκείνοις ἐντυχὼν πρότερον, ὧν χωρὶς οὐκ ἂν εἴη γεωγραφίας οἰκεῖος. οὕτως δὲ καὶ οἱ τοὺς λιμένας καὶ τοὺς περίπλους καλουμένους πραγματευθέντες ἀτελῆ τὴν ἐπίσκεψιν ποιοῦνται, μὴ προστιθέντες ὅσα ἐκ τῶν μαθημάτων καὶ ἐκ τῶν οὐρανίων συνάπτειν προσῆκεν.
Now there are some facts which we take to be established, viz. those with which every politician and general should be familiar. For on no account should they be so uninformed as to the heavens and the position of the earth, that when they are in strange countries, where some of the heavenly phenomena wear a different aspect to what they have been accustomed, they should be in a consternation, and exclaim, Neither west / Know we, nor east, where rises or where sets / The all-enlightening sun. / Still, we do not expect that they should be such thorough masters of the subject as to know what stars rise and set together for the different quarters of the earth; those which have the same meridian line, the elevation of the poles, the signs which are in the zenith, with all the various phenomena which differ as well in appearance as reality with the variations of the horizon and arctic circle. With some of these matters, unless as philosophical pursuits, they should not burden themselves at all; others they must take for granted without searching into their causes. This must be left to the care of the philosopher; the statesman can have no leisure, or very little, for such pursuits. Those who, through carelessness and ignorance, are not familiar with the globe and the circles traced upon it, some parallel to each other, some at right angles to the former, others, again, in an oblique direction; nor yet with the position of the tropics, equator, and zodiac, (that circle through which the sun travels in his course, and by which we reckon the changes of season and the winds,) such persons we caution against the perusal of our work. For if a man is neither properly acquainted with these things, nor with the variations of the horizon and arctic circle, and such similar elements of mathematics, how can he comprehend the matters treated of here? So for one who does not know a right line from a curve, nor yet a circle, nor a plane or spherical surface, nor the seven stars in the firmament composing the Great Bear, and such like, our work is entirely useless, at least for the present. Unless he first acquires such information, he is utterly incompetent to the study of geography. * So those who have written the works entitled On Ports, and Voyages Round the World, have performed their task imperfectly, since they have omitted to supply the requisite information from mathematics and astronomy.*
̔απλῶς δὲ κοινὸν εἶναι τὸ σύγγραμμα τοῦτο δεῖ καὶ πολιτικὸν καὶ δημωφελὲς ὁμοίως ὥσπερ τὴν τῆς ἱστορίας γραφήν. κἀκεῖ δὲ πολιτικὸν λέγομεν οὐχὶ τὸν παντάπασιν ἀπαίδευτον, ἀλλὰ τὸν μετασχόντα τῆς τε ἐγκυκλίου καὶ συνήθους ἀγωγῆς τοῖς ἐλευθέροις καὶ τοῖς φιλοσοφοῦσιν· οὐδὲ γὰρ ἂν οὔτε ψέγειν δύναιτο καλῶς οὔτʼ ἐπαινεῖν, οὐδὲ κρίνειν ὅσα μνήμης ἄξια τῶν γεγονότων, ὅτῳ μηδὲν ἐμέλησεν ἀρετῆς καὶ φρονήσεως καὶ τῶν εἰς ταῦτα λόγων.
The present undertaking is composed in a lucid style, suitable alike to the statesman and the general reader, after the fashion of my History. By a statesman we do not intend an illiterate person, but one who has gone through the course of a liberal and philosophical education. For a man who has bestowed no attention on virtue or intelligence, nor what constitutes them, must be incompetent either to blame or praise, still less to decide what actions are worthy to be placed on record.
διόπερ ἡμεῖς πεποιηκότες ὑπομνήματα ἱστορικὰ χρήσιμα, ὡς ὑπολαμβάνομεν, εἰς τὴν ἠθικὴν καὶ πολιτικὴν φιλοσοφίαν, ἔγνωμεν προσθεῖναι καὶ τήνδε τὴν σύνταξιν· ὁμοειδὴς γὰρ καὶ αὕτη, καὶ πρὸς τοὺς αὐτοὺς ἄνδρας, καὶ μάλιστα τοὺς ἐν ταῖς ὑπεροχαῖς. ἔτι δὲ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον, ὅνπερ ἐκεῖ τὰ περὶ τοὺς ἐπιφανεῖς ἄνδρας καὶ βίους τυγχάνει μνήμης, τὰ δὲ μικρὰ καὶ ἄδοξα παραλείπεται, κἀνταῦθα δεῖ τὰ μικρὰ καὶ τὰ ἀφανῆ παραπέμπειν, ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἐνδόξοις καὶ μεγάλοις καὶ ἐν οἷς τὸ πραγματικὸν καὶ εὐμνημόνευτον καὶ ἡδὺ διατρίβειν. καθάπερ τε καὶ ἐν τοῖς κολοσσικοῖς ἔργοις οὐ τὸ καθʼ ἕκαστον ἀκριβὲς ζητοῦμεν, ἀλλὰ τοῖς καθόλου προσέχομεν μᾶλλον εἰ καλῶς τὸ ὅλον, οὕτως κἀν τούτοις δεῖ ποιεῖσθαι τὴν κρίσιν. κολοσσουργία γάρ τις καὶ αὕτη, τὰ μεγάλα φράζουσα πῶς ἔχει καὶ τὰ ὅλα, πλὴν εἴ τι κινεῖν δύναται καὶ τῶν μικρῶν τὸν φιλειδήμονα καὶ τὸν πραγματικόν. ὅτι μὲν οὖν σπουδαῖον τὸ προκείμενον ἔργον καὶ φιλοσόφῳ πρέπον, ταῦτα εἰρήσθω.
Having already compiled our Historical Memoirs, which, as we conceive, are a valuable addition both to political and moral philosophy, we have now determined to follow it up with the present work, which has been prepared on the same system as the former, and for the same class of readers, but more particularly for those who are in high stations of life. And as our former production contains only the most striking events in the lives of distinguished men, omitting trifling and unimportant incidents; so here it will be proper to dismiss small and doubtful particulars, and merely call attention to great and remarkable transactions, such in fact as are usefill, memorable, and entertaining. In the colossal works of the sculptor we do not descend into a minute examination of particulars, but look principally for perfection in the general ensemble. This is the only method of criticism applicable to the present work. Its proportions, so to speak, are colossal; it deals in the generalities and main outlines of things, except now and then, when some minor detail can be selected, calculated to be serviceable to the seeker after knowledge, or the man of business.
We now think we have demonstrated that our present undertaking is one that requires great care, and is well worthy of a philosopher.
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